201
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Ho L, Stojanovski A, Whetstone H, Wei QX, Mau E, Wunder JS, Alman B. Gli2 and p53 cooperate to regulate IGFBP-3- mediated chondrocyte apoptosis in the progression from benign to malignant cartilage tumors. Cancer Cell 2009; 16:126-36. [PMID: 19647223 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2009.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Revised: 03/07/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Clinical evidence suggests that benign cartilage lesions can progress to malignant chondrosarcoma, but the molecular events in this progression are unknown. Mice that develop benign cartilage lesions due to overexpression of Gli2 in chondrocytes developed lesions similar to chondrosarcomas when they were also deficient in p53. Gli2 overexpression and p53 deficiency had opposing effects on chondrocyte differentiation, but had additive effects negatively regulating apoptosis. Regulation of Igfbp3 expression and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling by Gli and p53 integrated their effect on apoptosis. Treatment of human chondrosarcomas or fetal mouse limb explants with IGFBP3 or by blocking IGF increased the apoptosis rate, and mice expressing Gli2 developed substantially fewer tumors when they were also deficient for Igf2. IGF signaling-meditated apoptosis regulates the progression to malignant chondrosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa Ho
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
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202
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Ribes V, Briscoe J. Establishing and interpreting graded Sonic Hedgehog signaling during vertebrate neural tube patterning: the role of negative feedback. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2009; 1:a002014. [PMID: 20066087 PMCID: PMC2742090 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a002014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The secreted protein Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) acts in graded fashion to pattern the dorsal-ventral axis of the vertebrate neural tube. This is a dynamic process in which increasing concentrations and durations of exposure to SHH generate neurons with successively more ventral identities. Interactions between the receiving cells and the graded signal underpin the mechanism of SHH action. In particular, negative feedback, involving proteins transcriptionally induced or repressed by SHH signaling, plays an essential role in shaping the graded readout. On one hand, negative feedback controls, in a noncell-autonomous manner, the distribution of SHH across the field of receiving cells. On the other, it acts cell-autonomously to convert different concentrations of SHH into distinct durations of intracellular signal transduction. Together, these mechanisms exemplify a strategy for morphogen interpretation, which we have termed temporal adaptation that relies on the continuous processing and refinement of the cellular response to the graded signal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James Briscoe
- Developmental Neurobiology, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, United Kingdom, NW7 1AA
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203
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Lin W, Metzakopian E, Mavromatakis YE, Gao N, Balaskas N, Sasaki H, Briscoe J, Whitsett JA, Goulding M, Kaestner KH, Ang SL. Foxa1 and Foxa2 function both upstream of and cooperatively with Lmx1a and Lmx1b in a feedforward loop promoting mesodiencephalic dopaminergic neuron development. Dev Biol 2009; 333:386-96. [PMID: 19607821 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 07/01/2009] [Accepted: 07/03/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Mesodiencephalic dopaminergic neurons control voluntary movement and reward based behaviours. Their dysfunction can lead to neurological disorders, including Parkinson's disease. These neurons are thought to arise from progenitors in the floor plate of the caudal diencephalon and midbrain. Members of the Foxa family of forkhead/winged helix transcription factor, Foxa1 and Foxa2, have previously been shown to regulate neuronal specification and differentiation of mesodiencephalic progenitors. However, Foxa1 and Foxa2 are also expressed earlier during regional specification of the rostral brain. In this paper, we have examined the early function of Foxa1 and Foxa2 using conditional mutant mice. Our studies show that Foxa1 and Foxa2 positively regulate Lmx1a and Lmx1b expression and inhibit Nkx2.2 expression in mesodiencephalic dopaminergic progenitors. Subsequently, Foxa1 and Foxa2 function cooperatively with Lmx1a and Lmx1b to regulate differentiation of mesodiencephalic dopaminergic neurons. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments indicate that Nkx2.2 and TH genes are likely direct targets of Foxa1 and Foxa2 in mesodiencephalic dopaminergic cells in vivo. Foxa1 and Foxa2 also inhibit GABAergic neuron differentiation by repressing the Helt gene in the ventral midbrain. Our data therefore provide new insights into the specification and differentiation of mesodiencephalic dopaminergic neurons and identifies Foxa1 and Foxa2 as essential regulators in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lin
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London, NW7 1AA, UK
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204
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Nishi Y, Ji H, Wong WH, McMahon AP, Vokes SA. Modeling the spatio-temporal network that drives patterning in the vertebrate central nervous system. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2009; 1789:299-305. [PMID: 19445894 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Revised: 11/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we discuss the gene regulatory network underlying the patterning of the ventral neural tube during vertebrate embryogenesis. The neural tube is partitioned into domains of distinct cell fates by inductive signals along both anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes. A defining feature of the dorsal-ventral patterning is the graded distribution of Sonic hedgehog (Shh), which acts as a morphogen to specify several classes of ventral neurons in a concentration-dependent fashion. These inductive signals translate into patterned expressions of transcription factors that define different neural progenitor subtypes. Progenitor boundaries are sharpened by repressive interactions between these transcription factors. The progenitor-expressed transcription factors induce another set of transcription factors that are thought to contribute to neural identities in post-mitotic neural precursors. Thus, the gene regulatory network of the ventral neural tube patterning is characterized by hierarchical expression [inductive signal-->progenitor specifying factors (mitotic)--> precursor specifying factors (post mitotic)--> differentiated neural markers] and cross-repression between progenitor-expressed regulatory factors. Although a number of transcriptional regulators have been identified at each hierarchical level, their precise regulatory relationships are not clear. Here we discuss approaches aimed at clarifying and extending our understanding of the formation and propagation of this network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Nishi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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205
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Patterson VL, Damrau C, Paudyal A, Reeve B, Grimes DT, Stewart ME, Williams DJ, Siggers P, Greenfield A, Murdoch JN. Mouse hitchhiker mutants have spina bifida, dorso-ventral patterning defects and polydactyly: identification of Tulp3 as a novel negative regulator of the Sonic hedgehog pathway. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:1719-39. [PMID: 19223390 PMCID: PMC2671985 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signalling pathway is essential for embryonic development and the patterning of multiple organs. Disruption or activation of Shh signalling leads to multiple birth defects, including holoprosencephaly, neural tube defects and polydactyly, and in adults results in tumours of the skin or central nervous system. Genetic approaches with model organisms continue to identify novel components of the pathway, including key molecules that function as positive or negative regulators of Shh signalling. Data presented here define Tulp3 as a novel negative regulator of the Shh pathway. We have identified a new mouse mutant that is a strongly hypomorphic allele of Tulp3 and which exhibits expansion of ventral markers in the caudal spinal cord, as well as neural tube defects and preaxial polydactyly, consistent with increased Shh signalling. We demonstrate that Tulp3 acts genetically downstream of Shh and Smoothened (Smo) in neural tube patterning and exhibits a genetic interaction with Gli3 in limb development. We show that Tulp3 does not appear to alter expression or processing of Gli3, and we demonstrate that transcriptional regulation of other negative regulators (Rab23, Fkbp8, Thm1, Sufu and PKA) is not affected. We discuss the possible mechanism of action of Tulp3 in Shh-mediated signalling in light of these new data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Patterson
- Mammalian Genetics Unit, MRC Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Oxon, UK
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206
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Vingron M, Brazma A, Coulson R, van Helden J, Manke T, Palin K, Sand O, Ukkonen E. Integrating sequence, evolution and functional genomics in regulatory genomics. Genome Biol 2009; 10:202. [PMID: 19226437 PMCID: PMC2687781 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2009-10-1-202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
With genome analysis expanding from the study of genes to the study of gene regulation, 'regulatory genomics' utilizes sequence information, evolution and functional genomics measurements to unravel how regulatory information is encoded in the genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Vingron
- Computational Molecular Biology, Max-Planck-Institut für molekulare Genetik, Berlin, Germany.
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207
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Abstract
The Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted proteins governs a wide variety of processes during embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis. Here we review the current understanding of the molecular and cellular basis of Hh morphogen gradient formation and signal transduction, and the multifaceted roles of Hh signaling in development and tumorigenesis. We discuss how the Hh pathway has diverged during evolution and how it integrates with other signaling pathways to control cell growth and patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Jiang
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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208
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Madison BB, McKenna LB, Dolson D, Epstein DJ, Kaestner KH. FoxF1 and FoxL1 link hedgehog signaling and the control of epithelial proliferation in the developing stomach and intestine. J Biol Chem 2008; 284:5936-44. [PMID: 19049965 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m808103200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is a key component of cross-talk during vertebrate gut development, involving endodermally secreted Sonic (Shh) and Indian hedgehog (Ihh) proteins that directly signal to adjacent mesoderm. Here we show that the closely linked mesenchymal forkhead transcription factors Foxf1 and Foxl1 are part of this signaling cascade. Analysis of conserved non-coding sequences surrounding Foxf1 and Foxl1 identified seven Gli binding sites, with two sites near Foxl1 being identical among mammalian, bird, fish, and amphibian species. In vitro experiments indicate that Gli2 binds to these Gli sites, several of which are critical for Gli2-mediated activation of a luciferase reporter in 293 cells. In addition, we demonstrate occupancy of one of these elements by Gli proteins in the intestine in vivo using chromatin immunoprecipitation. Furthermore, expression of both Foxf1 and Foxl1 is reduced in the Gli2/Gli3 mutant gut. These results provide compelling evidence that Foxf1 and Foxl1 are mediators of the Hh (endoderm) to mesoderm signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blair B Madison
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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209
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210
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A genome-scale analysis of the cis-regulatory circuitry underlying sonic hedgehog-mediated patterning of the mammalian limb. Genes Dev 2008; 22:2651-63. [PMID: 18832070 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1693008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signals via Gli transcription factors to direct digit number and identity in the vertebrate limb. We characterized the Gli-dependent cis-regulatory network through a combination of whole-genome chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-on-chip and transcriptional profiling of the developing mouse limb. These analyses identified approximately 5000 high-quality Gli3-binding sites, including all known Gli-dependent enhancers. Discrete binding regions exhibit a higher-order clustering, highlighting the complexity of cis-regulatory interactions. Further, Gli3 binds inertly to previously identified neural-specific Gli enhancers, demonstrating the accessibility of their cis-regulatory elements. Intersection of DNA binding data with gene expression profiles predicted 205 putative limb target genes. A subset of putative cis-regulatory regions were analyzed in transgenic embryos, establishing Blimp1 as a direct Gli target and identifying Gli activator signaling in a direct, long-range regulation of the BMP antagonist Gremlin. In contrast, a long-range silencer cassette downstream from Hand2 likely mediates Gli3 repression in the anterior limb. These studies provide the first comprehensive characterization of the transcriptional output of a Shh-patterning process in the mammalian embryo and a framework for elaborating regulatory networks in the developing limb.
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211
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Abstract
The Hedgehog (Hh) family of proteins control cell growth, survival, and fate, and pattern almost every aspect of the vertebrate body plan. The use of a single morphogen for such a wide variety of functions is possible because cellular responses to Hh depend on the type of responding cell, the dose of Hh received, and the time cells are exposed to Hh. The Hh gradient is shaped by several proteins that are specifically required for Hh processing, secretion, and transport through tissues. The mechanism of cellular response, in turn, incorporates multiple feedback loops that fine-tune the level of signal sensed by the responding cells. Germline mutations that subtly affect Hh pathway activity are associated with developmental disorders, whereas somatic mutations activating the pathway have been linked to multiple forms of human cancer. This review focuses broadly on our current understanding of Hh signaling, from mechanisms of action to cellular and developmental functions. In addition, we review the role of Hh in the pathogenesis of human disease and the possibilities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markku Varjosalo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute (KTL), and Genome-Scale Biology Program, Biomedicum Helsinki, Institute of Biomedicine and High Throughput Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
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212
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Chan TM, Longabaugh W, Bolouri H, Chen HL, Tseng WF, Chao CH, Jang TH, Lin YI, Hung SC, Wang HD, Yuh CH. Developmental gene regulatory networks in the zebrafish embryo. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2008; 1789:279-98. [PMID: 18992377 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2008] [Revised: 08/21/2008] [Accepted: 09/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The genomic developmental program operates mainly through the regulated expression of genes encoding transcription factors and signaling pathways. Complex networks of regulatory genetic interactions control developmental cell specification and fates. Development in the zebrafish, Danio rerio, has been studied extensively and large amounts of experimental data, including information on spatial and temporal gene expression patterns, are available. A wide variety of maternal and zygotic regulatory factors and signaling pathways have been discovered in zebrafish, and these provide a useful starting point for reconstructing the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) underlying development. In this review, we describe in detail the genetic regulatory subcircuits responsible for dorsoanterior-ventroposterior patterning and endoderm formation. We describe a number of regulatory motifs, which appear to act as the functional building blocks of the GRNs. Different positive feedback loops drive the ventral and dorsal specification processes. Mutual exclusivity in dorsal-ventral polarity in zebrafish is governed by intra-cellular cross-inhibiting GRN motifs, including vent/dharma and tll1/chordin. The dorsal-ventral axis seems to be determined by competition between two maternally driven positive-feedback loops (one operating on Dharma, the other on Bmp). This is the first systematic approach aimed at developing an integrated model of the GRNs underlying zebrafish development. Comparison of GRNs' organizational motifs between different species will provide insights into developmental specification and its evolution. The online version of the zebrafish GRNs can be found at http://www.zebrafishGRNs.org.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Min Chan
- Division of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institute, Taiwan, Republic of China
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213
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Dessaud E, McMahon AP, Briscoe J. Pattern formation in the vertebrate neural tube: a sonic hedgehog morphogen-regulated transcriptional network. Development 2008; 135:2489-503. [PMID: 18621990 DOI: 10.1242/dev.009324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 512] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal subtype specification in the vertebrate neural tube is one of the best-studied examples of embryonic pattern formation. Distinct neuronal subtypes are generated in a precise spatial order from progenitor cells according to their location along the anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes. Underpinning this organization is a complex network of multiple extrinsic and intrinsic factors. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms and general strategies at play in ventral regions of the forming spinal cord, where sonic hedgehog-based morphogen signaling is a key determinant. We discuss recent advances in our understanding of these events and highlight unresolved questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Dessaud
- Developmental Neurobiology, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, UK
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214
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Longabaugh WJR, Davidson EH, Bolouri H. Visualization, documentation, analysis, and communication of large-scale gene regulatory networks. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2008; 1789:363-74. [PMID: 18757046 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Genetic regulatory networks (GRNs) are complex, large-scale, and spatially and temporally distributed. These characteristics impose challenging demands on software tools for building GRN models, and so there is a need for custom tools. In this paper, we report on our ongoing development of BioTapestry, an open source, freely available computational tool designed specifically for building GRN models. We also outline our future development plans, and give some examples of current applications of BioTapestry.
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215
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Xie D, Cai J, Chia NY, Ng HH, Zhong S. Cross-species de novo identification of cis-regulatory modules with GibbsModule: application to gene regulation in embryonic stem cells. Genome Res 2008; 18:1325-35. [PMID: 18490265 DOI: 10.1101/gr.072769.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We introduce the GibbsModule algorithm for de novo detection of cis-regulatory motifs and modules in eukaryote genomes. GibbsModule models the coexpressed genes within one species as sharing a core cis-regulatory motif and each homologous gene group as sharing a homologous cis-regulatory module (CRM), characterized by a similar composition of motifs. Without using a predetermined alignment result, GibbsModule iteratively updates the core motif shared by coexpressed genes and traces the homologous CRMs that contain the core motif. GibbsModule achieved substantial improvements in both precision and recall as compared with peer algorithms on a number of synthetic and real data sets. Applying GibbsModule to analyze the binding regions of the Krüppel-like factor (KLF) transcription factor in embryonic stem cells (ESCs), we discovered a motif that differs from a previously published KLF motif identified by a SELEX experiment, but the new motif is consistent with mutagenesis analysis. The SOX2 motif was found to be a collaborating motif to the KLF motif in ESCs. We used quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis to test whether GibbsModule could distinguish functional and nonfunctional binding sites. All seven tested binding sites in GibbsModule-predicted CRMs had higher ChIP signals as compared with the other seven tested binding sites located outside of predicted CRMs. GibbsModule is available at (http://biocomp.bioen.uiuc.edu/GibbsModule).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Xie
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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216
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Blaess S, Stephen D, Joyner AL. Gli3 coordinates three-dimensional patterning and growth of the tectum and cerebellum by integrating Shh and Fgf8 signaling. Development 2008; 135:2093-103. [PMID: 18480159 DOI: 10.1242/dev.015990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The coordination of anterior-posterior (AP) and dorsal-ventral (DV) patterning of the mesencephalon (mes) and rhombomere 1 (r1) is instrumental for the development of three distinct brain structures: the tectum and cerebellum dorsally and the tegmentum ventrally. Patterning of the mes/r1 is primarily mediated by signaling molecules secreted from two organizers: sonic hedgehog (Shh) from the floor plate (DV) and Fgf8 from the isthmus (AP). Gli3, a zinc-finger transcription factor in the Shh signaling pathway, has been implicated in regulating Fgf8 expression and is therefore a potential candidate for coordinating the action of the two organizers. By inactivating mouse Gli3 at successive embryonic time points in vivo, we uncovered the extent and the underlying mechanism of Gli3 function in the mes/r1. We demonstrate that before E9.0, Gli3 is required for establishing a distinct posterior tectum, isthmus and cerebellum, but does not play a role in the development of the tegmentum. Between E9.0 and E11.0, Gli3 continues to be required for isthmus and cerebellum development, but primarily for defining the cerebellar foliation pattern. We show that Gli3 regulates patterning of the isthmus and cerebellar anlage by confining Fgf8 expression to the isthmus, and attenuates growth of dorsal r1 (before E11.0) and the dorsal mes and isthmus (beyond E11.0) through regulation of cell proliferation and viability. In conclusion, our results show that Gli3 is essential for the coordinated three-dimensional patterning and growth of the dorsal mes/r1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Blaess
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Box 511, New York, NY 10021, USA
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217
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Eichberger T, Kaser A, Pixner C, Schmid C, Klingler S, Winklmayr M, Hauser-Kronberger C, Aberger F, Frischauf AM. GLI2-specific transcriptional activation of the bone morphogenetic protein/activin antagonist follistatin in human epidermal cells. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:12426-37. [PMID: 18319260 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m707117200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hedgehog (HH) signaling in the epidermis is primarily mediated by the zinc finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2. Exquisite regulation of HH/GLI signaling is crucial for proper specification of the epidermal lineage and development of its derivatives, whereas dysregulation of HH/GLI signaling disrupts tissue homeostasis and causes basal cell carcinoma (BCC). Similarly, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and activins have been described as key signaling factors in the complex regulation of epidermal fate decisions, although their precise interplay with HH/GLI is largely elusive. Here we show that, in human epidermal cells, expression of the activin/BMP antagonist follistatin (FST) is predominantly up-regulated by the HH effector GLI2. Consistently, we found strong FST expression in the outer root sheath of human hair follicles and BCC. Detailed promoter analysis showed that two sequences with homology to the GLI consensus binding site are required for GLI2-mediated activation. Interestingly, activation of the FST promoter is highly GLI2-specific, because neither GLI1 nor GLI3 can significantly increase FST transcription. GLI2 specificity requires the presence of a 518-bp fragment in the proximal FST promoter region. On the protein level, sequences C-terminal to the zinc finger are responsible for GLI2-specific activation of FST transcription, pointing to the existence of GLI-interacting cofactors that modulate GLI target specificity. Our results reveal a key role of GLI2 in activation of the activin/BMP antagonist FST in response to HH signaling and provide new evidence for a regulatory interaction between HH and activin/BMP signaling in hair follicle development and BCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Eichberger
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Austria
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218
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Abstract
Homeobox genes are an evolutionarily conserved class of transcription factors that are key regulators of developmental processes such as regional specification, patterning, migration and differentiation. In both mouse and humans, the developing forebrain is marked by distinct boundaries of homeobox gene expression at different developmental time points. These genes regulate the patterning of the forebrain along the dorsal/ventral and rostral/caudal axes and are also essential for the differentiation of specific neuronal subtypes. Inhibitory interneurons that arise from the ganglionic eminences and migrate tangentially to the neocortex and hippocampus are dramatically affected by mutations in several homeobox genes. In this review, we discuss the identification, expression patterns, loss- and/or gain-of-function models, and confirmed transcriptional targets for a set of homeobox genes required for the correct development of the forebrain in the mouse. In humans, mutations of homeobox genes expressed in the forebrain have been shown to result in mental retardation, epilepsy or movement disorders. The number of homeobox genes currently linked to human nervous system disease is surprisingly low, perhaps reflecting the essential functions of these genes throughout embryogenesis or the degree of functional redundancy during central nervous system development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Wigle
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics; Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, St. Boniface General Hospital Research Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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219
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Ruiz i Altaba A, Mas C, Stecca B. The Gli code: an information nexus regulating cell fate, stemness and cancer. Trends Cell Biol 2007; 17:438-47. [PMID: 17845852 PMCID: PMC2601665 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2007.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2007] [Revised: 06/30/2007] [Accepted: 06/30/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Gli code hypothesis postulates that the three vertebrate Gli transcription factors act together in responding cells to integrate intercellular Hedgehog (Hh) and other signaling inputs, resulting in the regulation of tissue pattern, size and shape. Hh and other inputs are then just ways to modify the Gli code. Recent data confirm this idea and suggest that the Gli code regulates stemness and also tumor progression and metastatic growth, opening exciting possibilities for both regenerative medicine and novel anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Ruiz i Altaba
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, 8242 CMU, University of Geneva Medical School, 1 rue Michel Servet, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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