Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles

The Critical Role of Carbon Nanotubes in Bridging Academic Research to Commercialization of Lithium Batteries

Rechargeable lithium batteries have been intensively explored due to their potential to deliver a high energy and stable cycling performance. Yet considerable achievements have been reported on battery performance in lab-based research, a broad gap from fundamental research to their industrial application needs to be filled. The significant advances in the field of carbon nanotubes over the past decades make it a promising candidate to bridge such a gap. Nevertheless, a systematic and profound understanding of its roles in Li batteries is lacking. In this review, we discuss the critical role of carbon nanotube in developing several lithium techniques such as Li-ion, Li-sulfur, and Li-air cells. The focus is laid on the elevation of device capacity, energy, and cyclic life to meet the practical demand. We hope this paper, together with other recently-proposed guiding principles, will pave the way for the massive application of carbon nanotube-based lithium batteries.

Efficient recovery of valuable metals from cathode materials of spent LiCoO2 batteries via co-pyrolysis with cheap carbonaceous materials

Recovery of valuable metals from spent Li-ion batteries has prominent economic and environmental benefits. In this study, a novel approach for recycling valuable metals from spent LiCoO₂ batteries via co-pyrolysis with three different carbonaceous materials (waste polyethylene, biomass, and coal)) was proposed and evaluated. The thermodynamic analysis proved that carbonaceous materials (mainly carbon) were theoretically able to facilitate the decomposition process of LiCoO₂. The promotion effect on LiCoO₂ decomposition was in the following order: coal > biomass > polyethylene, and the decomposition temperature of LiCoO₂ could significantly reduce by 400 °C via adding coal. The char produced from the carbonaceous materials, rather than the volatiles, played an important role in LiCoO₂ decomposition and reduction. The pyrolysis products of LiCoO₂ and coal mixture exhibited typical superparamagnetism and hysteresis behaviours, which benefitted the subsequent magnetic separation. The recovery rates of Co and Li were sensitive to the pyrolysis temperature and residence time, respectively. A high proportion of Co was in the form of CoO below 800 °C and had not been completely reduced, leading to the relatively lower recovery rates of Co below 800 °C. The optimal recovery rates of Co (96.8%) and Li (88.7%) were obtained at the pyrolysis temperature of 800 °C and the residence time of 10 min. The final recovery products were Co and Li₂CO₃ with rather high crystallinities and purities. Therefore, this study provided a novel approach for the efficient recycling of valuable metals from spent Li-ion batteries with high application prospects.

Exploiting the Iron Difluoride Electrochemistry by Constructing Hierarchical Electron Pathways and Cathode Electrolyte Interface

Conversion-type cathodes such as metal fluorides, especially FeF₂ and FeF₃ , are potential candidates to replace intercalation cathodes for the next generation of lithium ion batteries. However, the application of iron fluorides is impeded by their poor electronic conductivity, iron/fluorine dissolution, and unstable cathode electrolyte interfaces (CEIs). A facile route to fabricate a mechanical strong electrode with hierarchical electron pathways for FeF₂ nanoparticles is reported here. The FeF₂ /Li cell demonstrates remarkable cycle performances with a capacity of 300 mAh g^-1 after a record long 4500 cycles at 1C. Meanwhile, a record stable high area capacity of over 6 mAh cm^-2 is achieved. Furthermore, ultra-high rate capabilities at 20C and 6C for electrodes with low and high mass loading, respectively, are attained. Advanced electron microscopy reveals the formation of stable CEIs. The results demonstrate that the construction of viable electronic connections and favorable CEIs are the key to boost the electrochemical performances of FeF₂ cathode.

Influence of cell opening methods on organic solvent removal during pretreatment in lithium-ion battery recycling

The use and development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are promoting the technological transformation of individual mobility, consumer electronics and electric energy storage. At their end of life, the complex compounds are disposed by different recycling technologies with defined secondary raw material production. The applied depollution temperatures of the process routes influence not only the recycling efficiency but also the process expenditure, design, medium and costs. Different pretreatment strategies in terms of dismantling depth and depollution temperature are existing. Furthermore, manual and mechanical methods for cell opening are distinguished, which together with the depollution leads to a respective organic solvent evaporation. In this contribution to LIB recycling, the influence of different dismantling depths, achieved by manual cell opening, on the thermal depollution of the LIB cells regarding the mass difference originating by organic solvent evaporation are quantified, in order to determine cell and equipment properties for a safe cell opening. As a result, combinations of thermal depollution and manual cell opening are discussed regarding technical and economic feasibility. The process medium and equipment properties for a safe cell opening are determined. Furthermore, recommendations for future industrial LIB waste management are presented.

Waste Bank Policy Implementation through Collaborative Approach: Comparative Study—Makassar and Bantaeng, Indonesia

The purpose of this study is to determine the dynamics of implementing waste management policies through the waste bank innovation program in national policies. It also aims to determine the factors that influence it through a collaborative approach based on communication between community stakeholders, entrepreneurs, and the government in Makassar City and Bantaeng Regency. This is a qualitative-exploratory research study that uses a case study approach to delve into the research topic. The data collected were analyzed using the software Nvivo 12 pro to provide a systematic, factual, accurate, and in-depth picture of the implementation of waste bank program policies in eastern regions in Indonesia. The results of this study explain that the implementation of the Waste Bank Management Policy in Makassar City and Bantaeng Regency has not been run optimally, especially in the aspect of communication between stakeholders, including community participation. Although stakeholders and implementing agents have understood the intent and purpose of the waste bank program, socialization in the community is still considered less than optimal. Therefore, this research encourages local governments to implement effective and efficient waste bank program policies, with collaboration for every stakeholder in the area, to increase public and private participation.

Solvent Extraction for Separation of 99.9% Pure Cobalt and Recovery of Li, Ni, Fe, Cu, Al from Spent LIBs

In this work, hydrometallurgical recycling of metals from high-cobalt-content spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from laptops was studied using precipitation and solvent extraction as alternative purification processes. Large amounts of cobalt (58% by weight), along with nickel (6.2%), manganese (3.06%) and lithium (6.09%) are present in LiCoO2 and Li2CoMn3O8 as prominent Co-rich phases of the electrode material. The pregnant leach solution (PLS) that was generated by leaching in the presence of 10% H2O2 using 50 g/L pulp density at 80 °C for 4 h contained 27.4 g/L Co, 3.21 g/L Ni, 1.59 g/L Mn and 3.60 g/L Li. The PLS was subjected to precipitation at various pH using 2 M NaOH but the purification performance was poor. To improve the separation of Mn and other impurities and in order to avoid the loss of cobalt and nickel, separation studies were carried out using a solvent extraction technique using di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) and bis-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid (Cyanex 272). Overall, this study examines the fundamentals of separating and synthesizing 99.9% pure Co sulfate from leach liquor of spent laptop LIBs with remarkably high cobalt content.

Inorganic crosslinked supramolecular binder with fast Self-Healing for high performance silicon based anodes in Lithium-Ion batteries

Capacity retention is one of the key factors affecting the performance of silicon (Si)-based lithium-ion batteries and other energy storage devices. Herein, a three dimension (3D) network self-healing binder (denoted as PVA + LB) consisting of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and lithium metaborate (LiBO₂) solution is proposed to improve the cycle stability of Si-based lithium-ion batteries. The reversible capacity of the silicon electrode is maintained at 1767.3 mAh g^-1 after 180 cycles when employing PVA + LB as the binder, exhibiting excellent cycling stability. In addition, the silicon/carbon (Si/C) anode with the PVA + LB binder presents superior electrochemical performance, achieving a stable cycle life with a capacity retention of 73.7% (858.3 mAh g^-1) after 800 cycles at a current density of 1 A g^-1. The high viscosity and flexibility, 3D network structure, and self-healing characteristics of the PVA + LB binder are the main reasons to improve the stability of the Si or Si/C contained electrodes. The novel self-healing binder shows great potential in designing the new generation of silicon-based lithium-ion batteries and even electrochemical energy storage devices.

Hydroxylamine mediated Fenton-like interfacial reaction dynamics on sea urchin-like catalyst derived from spent LiFePO4 battery

Herein, we converted spent LiFePO₄ battery to the sea urchin-like material (SULM) with a highly efficient and environment-friendly method, which can contribute to building a zero-waste city. With SULM as a Fenton-like catalyst, a highly-efficient degradation process was realized for organic pollutants with interface and solution synergistic effect. In our SULM+NH₂OH+H₂O₂ Fenton-like system, NH₂OH can effectively promote the interface iron (Fe(Ⅲ)/Fe(Ⅱ)) and solution iron (Fe(Ⅲ)/Fe(Ⅱ)) redox cycle, thus promoting the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the ROS generation process and organic pollutants degradation pathway with the presence of NH₂OH remains a puzzle. Here the detailed ROS generation mechanism and pollutants degradation pathway have been illustrated carefully based on experimental exploration and characterization. Therein, hydroxyl radicals (·OH) and singlet oxygen (¹O₂) are the main ROS for oxidizing and degrading organic pollutants. Notably, ¹O₂ can be converted from superoxide radicals (·O₂) in SULM+NH₂OH+H₂O₂ system. This study not only demonstrates the strategy of "trash-to-treasure" and "waste-to-control-waste" to simultaneously reduce the hazardous release from industrial solid waste and organic wastewater, it also provides new mechanistic insights for NH₂OH mediated Fenton-like redox system.

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance and Safety of LiNi0.88Co0.1Al0.02O2 by a Negative Thermal Expansion Material of Orthorhombic Al2(WO4)3

LiNi0.88Co0.1Al0.02O2 (NCA) is attractive for high-energy batteries, but phase transition and side reactions leave large volume change and thermal runaway. In order to address the drawbacks, orthorhombic Al2(WO4)3, a cheap anisotropic negative thermal expansion material, was synthesized and adopted to modify NCA, and its effects on the electrochemical performance and safety of NCA were investigated using multifarious techniques. Al2(WO4)3 can greatly improve the rate performance, cyclability at different temperatures, thermal stability, and interface behavior and intensify charge transfer as well as decline the deformation and side reactions of NCA. The discharge capacity of the NCA modified with 5 wt % Al2(WO4)3 reaches 170.0 mA h/g at 5.0 C and 25 °C. After 100 cycles, the values of this electrode at 1.0 C and 25 °C and at 3.0 C and 60 °C are 164.2 and 148.7 mA h/g, respectively, much higher than those of the pure NCA under the same conditions. Moreover, Al2(WO4)3 declines the byproducts and cation mixing and decreases the released heat, strain, and charge-transfer resistance after cycles of NCA about 37.1, 33.0, and 32.8%, respectively. The improvement mechanism is discussed. It opens an effective avenue for the applications of energy materials by simultaneously adjusting heat, structure, interface, and deformation.

Preferential Extraction of Lithium from Spent Cathodes and the Regeneration of Layered Oxides for Li/Na-Ion Batteries

The preferentially selective extraction of Li⁺ from spent layered transition metal oxide (LiMO₂, M = Ni, Co, Mn, etc.) cathodes has attracted extensive interest based on economic and recycling efficiency requirements. Presently, the efficient recycling of spent LiMO₂ is still challenging due to the element loss in multistep processes. Here, we developed a facile strategy to selectively extract Li⁺ from LiMO₂ scraps with stoichiometric H₂SO₄. The proton exchange reaction could be driven using temperature, accompanied by the generation of soluble Li₂SO₄ and MOOH precipitates. The extraction mechanism includes a two-stage evolution, including dissolution and ion exchange. As a result, the extraction rate of Li⁺ is over 98.5% and that of M ions is less than 0.1% for S-NCM. For S-LCO, the selective extraction result is even better. Finally, Li₂CO₃ products with a purity of 99.68% can be prepared from the Li⁺-rich leachate, demonstrating lithium recovery efficiencies as high as 95 and 96.3% from NCM scraps and S-LCO scraps, respectively. In the available cases, this work also represents the highest recycling efficiency of lithium, which can be attributed to the high leaching rate and selectivity of Li⁺, and even demonstrates the lowest reagent cost. The regenerated LiNi_0.5Co_0.24Mn_0.26O₂ and Na_1.01Li_0.001Ni_0.38Co_0.18Mn_0.44O₂ cathodes also deliver a decent electrochemical performance for Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and Na-ion batteries (NIBs), respectively. Our current work offers a facile, closed-loop, and scalable strategy for recycling spent LIB cathodes based on the preferentially selective extraction of Li⁺, which is superior to the other leaching technology in terms of its cost and recycling yield.

A critical review of the circular economy for lithium-ion batteries and photovoltaic modules - status, challenges, and opportunities

To meet net-zero emissions and cost targets for power production, recent analysis indicates that photovoltaic (PV) capacity in the United States could exceed 1 TW by 2050 alongside comparable levels of energy storage capacity, mostly from batteries. For comparison, the total U.S. utility-scale power capacity from all energy sources in 2020 was 1.2 TW, of which solar satisfied approximately 3%. With such massive scales of deployment, questions have arisen regarding issues of material supply for manufacturing, end-of-life management of technologies, environmental impacts across the life cycle, and economic costs to both individual consumers and society at large. A set of solutions to address these issues center on the development of a circular economy - shifting from a take-make-waste linear economic model to one that retains the value of materials and products as long as possible, recovering materials at end of life to recirculate back into the economy. With limited global experience, scholars and practitioners have begun to investigate circular economy pathways, focusing on applying novel technologies and analytical methods to fast-growing sectors like renewable energy. This critical review aims to synthesize the growing literature to identify key insights, gaps, and opportunities for research and implementation of a circular economy for two of the leading technologies that enable the transition to a renewable energy economy: solar PV and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). We apply state-of-the-science systematic literature review procedures to critically analyze over 3,000 publications on the circular economy of solar PV and LIBs, categorizing those that pass a series of objective screens in ways that can illuminate the current state of the art, highlight existing impediments to a circular economy, and recommend future technological and analytical research. We conclude that while neither PV nor LIB industries have reached a circular economy, they are both on a path towards increased circularity. Based on our assessment of the state of current literature and scientific understanding, we recommend research move beyond its prior emphasis on recycling technology development to more comprehensively investigate other CE strategies, more holistically consider economic, environmental and policy aspects of CE strategies, increase leveraging of digital information systems that can support acceleration towards a CE, and to continue to study CE-related aspects of LIB and PV markets.

Ultrastable and High-Rate 2D Siloxene Anode Enabled by Covalent Organic Framework Engineering for Advanced Lithium-Ion Batteries

Siloxene as a new type of 2D material has wide potential applications due to its special structure. Especially, as anode for lithium-ion batteries, siloxene shows promising prospect due to its small volume change and low diffusion pathway. However, the unstable solid electrolyte interphase and low electronic conductivity lead to the low Coulombic efficiency, poor rate capability, and limited cycling performance. To settle the problems, a thin porous covalent organic framework (COF) coating layer is designed by in situ growth on micro-sized siloxene. With the inherent ionic conductive and electrolyte compatible advantages of COF, the engineered siloxene demonstrates superior electrochemical performance with 96% capacity retention at 8 A g^-1 for 1500 cycles.

Barriers and Enablers of Circular Economy Implementation for Electric-Vehicle Batteries: From Systematic Literature Review to Conceptual Framework

With the burgeoning transition toward electrified automobile fleets, electric-vehicle batteries (EVBs) have become one of the critical aspects to be considered to avoid resources issues while achieving necessary climate goals. This paper compiles and syntheses reported barriers, enablers, involved stakeholders, and business models of Circular Economy (CE) implementation of the EVBs based on a systematic literature review (SLR). Findings indicate that inefficient and inadequate government policy, lack of safety standards, and high recycling costs are the three most reported barriers. The barriers have interconnections with each other, implying the necessity for simultaneous strategies. Based on the barriers-enablers analysis, the key strategies establishing the CE for the EVBs are innovative business models, economic incentives, EVB standards, legal environmental responsibilities, and certification, whereas the optimized supply-chain operations can be realized through eco-design of the EVBs, battery modularization, proper technology for checking, diagnosing, tracking, information sharing, extensive collaboration, alignment of supply-chain stakeholders, innovative business model, and certification. A conceptual framework presenting the required strategies for both establishing the CE and optimizing the circular supply chain system of the EVBs was then proposed. Potential future research directions are also discussed.

Effect of High-Voltage Additives on Formation of Solid Electrolyte Interphases in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed at the interface in lithium-ion batteries plays an important role in isolating electrons and permeating ions during charging/discharging processes. Therefore, the formation of a good interface is crucial for better battery performance. In this study, additives based on adiponitrile (ADN) and trimethyl borate (TMB) were employed to broaden the electrochemical window and form a good SEI layer. Electrochemical Atomic force microscopy (EC-AFM) was used for in situ studies of film-formation mechanisms in high-voltage electrolytes on high-temperature pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), as well as Li- and Mn-rich (LMR) materials. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) combined with electrochemical methods revealed a synergistic reaction between the two additives to form a more stable interfacial film during charging/discharging processes to yield assembled batteries with improved cycle performance, its capacity increased from below 100 mAh/g to 200 mAh/g after 50 cycles. In sum, these findings would have great significance for the development of high voltage lithium-ion batteries with enhanced performance.

Aqueous zinc batteries: Design principles toward organic cathodes for grid applications

The development of low-cost and sustainable grid energy storage is urgently needed to accommodate the growing proportion of intermittent renewables in the global energy mix. Aqueous zinc-ion batteries are promising candidates to provide grid storage due to their inherent safety, scalability, and economic viability. Organic cathode materials are especially advantageous for use in zinc-ion batteries as they can be synthesized using scalable processes from inexpensive starting materials and have potential for biodegradation at their end of life. Strategies for designing organic cathode materials for rechargeable zinc-ion batteries targeting grid applications will be discussed in detail. Specifically, we emphasize the importance of cost analysis, synthetic simplicity, end-of-life scenarios, areal loading of active material, and long-term stability to materials design. We highlight the strengths and challenges of present zinc-organic research in the context of our design principles, and provide opportunities and considerations for future electrode design.

Assessment of recycling methods and processes for lithium-ion batteries

This review discusses physical, chemical, and direct lithium-ion battery recycling methods to have an outlook on future recovery routes. Physical and chemical processes are employed to treat cathode active materials which are the greatest cost contributor in the production of lithium batteries. Direct recycling processes maintain the original chemical structure and process value of battery materials by recovering and reusing them directly. Mechanical separation is essential to liberate cathode materials that are concentrated in the finer size region. However, currently, the cathode active materials are being concentrated at a cut point that is considerably greater than the actual size found in spent batteries. Effective physical methods reduce the cost of subsequent chemical treatment and thereafter re-lithiation successfully reintroduces lithium into spent cathodes. Some of the current challenges are the difficulty in controlling impurities in recovered products and ensuring that the entire recycling process is more sustainable.

Direct and green repairing of degraded LiCoO2 for reuse in lithium- ion batteries

Traditional recycling processes of LiCoO2 rely on destructive decomposition, requiring high-temperature roasting or acid leaching to extract valuable Li and Co, which have significant environmental and economic concerns. Herein, a direct repairing method for degraded LiCoO2 using a LiCl-CH4N2O deep eutectic solvent (DES) was established. The DES is not used to dissolve LiCoO2 but directly serves as a carrier for the selective replenishment of lithium and cobalt. Replenishment of lithium restores the LiCoO2 at different states of charge to a capacity of 130 mAh/g (at 0.1 C rate), while replenishing the cobalt increases the capacity retention rate to 90% after 100 cycles, which is comparable to pristine LiCoO2. The DES is collected and reused multiple times with a high repair efficiency. This process reduces energy consumption by 37.1% and greenhouse gas emissions by 34.8% compared with the current production process of LiCoO2, demonstrating excellent environmental and economic viability.

Recycling spent LiNi1-x-yMnxCoyO2 cathodes to bifunctional NiMnCo catalysts for zinc-air batteries

SignificanceIn recent years, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely applied in electric vehicles as energy storage devices. However, it is a great challenge to deal with the large number of spent LIBs. In this work, we employ a rapid thermal radiation method to convert the spent LIBs into highly efficient bifunctional NiMnCo-activated carbon (NiMnCo-AC) catalysts for zinc-air batteries (ZABs). The obtained NiMnCo-AC catalyst shows excellent electrochemical performance in ZABs due to the unique core-shell structure, with face-centered cubic Ni in the core and spinel NiMnCoO₄ in the shell. This work provides an economical and environment-friendly approach to recycling the spent LIBs and converting them into novel energy storage devices.

Policies for Material Circularity: the Case of Lithium

Improper waste management carries social risks and dissipates high-value materials. Moreover, material market prices do not reflect these hidden costs and values. Two important questions are how prices can inform society about their resource use impact and how market-based policies optimize material circularity. This study adds to the literature by analyzing the effect of market-based policies aimed at promoting circular material reuse in a market defied by harmful waste but enhanced by recycling. The findings indicate that a landfill tax is a first-best policy since it targets the external costs of waste disposal, improves welfare, reduces damages, and boosts recycling. If a landfill tax is not feasible, other programs like taxes, subsidies, and a tax-subsidy scheme provide second-best results. Remarkably, recycling subsidies can stimulate higher raw material extraction and generate rebound effects. We also explore other non-market-based strategies to prevent waste and make recycling more cost-competitive and easier to recycle. The numerical results and sensitivity analysis of the lithium market illustrate the model's flexibility and prove why some policies are superior to others for reducing waste and creating value from used materials. Our study results serve as a guide to designing policies for optimal material circularity.

Effective regeneration of mixed composition of spent lithium-ion batteries electrodes towards building supercapacitor

Recycling of different manufacturers of spent lithium-ion batteries cathode and anode via a simple regeneration process has an opportunity to fabricate new energy devices. In this study, the different manufacturers of spent LIB cathode pieces were subjected to lixiviation process and found the best-optimized conditions such as tartaric acid concentration (2.5 M), H₂O₂ concentration (7.5 vol%), solid-liquid ratio (80 g/L), temperature (80 °C), and lixiviation time (80 min) for maximum ~ 99% extraction efficiency of metals. Further, 3D-MnCo₂O₄ (MCO) spheres were regenerated from the cathode lixivium containing metal ions via hydrothermal technique. Besides, anode graphite and Al foils after cathode lixiviation were exploited to prepare reduced graphene oxide (RGO) at room temperature in a simple method. The electrochemical performance of both regenerated electrodes from spent LIBs was explored in the half-cell configuration using the 1 M Na₂SO₄ electrolyte. Additionally, the constructed MCO//RGO asymmetric supercapacitor device offers an operational voltage of 1.8 V and displays a high energy density of ~ 23.9 Wh kg^-1 at 450 W kg^-1 with 8000 cycles. This alternative recycling method proposes the possibility to construct high-energy storage devices from different compositions of spent LIBs.

Recycling of valuable metals from spent cathode material by organic pyrolysis combined with in-situ thermal reduction

From the perspective of environmental protection and resource recovery, recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries is a meaningful process. In this study, the removal of organics, liberatioin of electrode material, and reduction of high valence transition metal, as the key points in recycling efficiency of valuable metals, have been firstly achieved simultaneously by low temperature heat treatment recycling process. Pyrolysis characteristics of organics, phase transition behavior of spent cathode material and the thermal reduction mechanism were evaluated in the meantime. Results demonstrate that organics can be removed and the liberation of electrode materials can be improved by pyrolysis. High-valence transition metals in cathode materials are synchronously reduced to CoO, NiO, MnO, Ni, and Co based on the reducing action of organics, aluminum foil and conductive additives. At the same time, Li element exists in the form of Li₂CO₃, LiF and aluminum-lithium compound that can be recycled by water-leaching in the water impact crushing process while transition metals can be recycled by acid leaching without reducing agents. 81.26% of Li can be recycled from water-leaching process while the comprehensive recovery rate of Ni, Co, Mn is 92.04%, 93.01%, 92.21%, respectively. This study may provide an environmentally-friendly recycling flowchart of spent lithium-ion batteries.

Recycling of cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries: Challenges and future perspectives

The intrinsic advancement of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for application in electric vehicles (EVs), portable electronic devices, and energy-storage devices has led to an increase in the number of spent LIBs. Spent LIBs contain hazardous metals (such as Li, Co, Ni, and Mn), toxic and corrosive electrolytes, metal casting, and polymer binders that pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Additionally, spent LIBs may serve as an economic source for transition metals, which could be applied to redesigning under a closed-circuit recycling process. Thus, the development of environmentally benign, low cost, and efficient processes for recycling of LIBs for a sustainable future has attracted worldwide attention. Therefore, herein, we introduce the concept of LIBs and review state-of-art technologies for metal recycling processes. Moreover, we emphasize on LIB pretreatment approaches, metal extraction, and pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and biometallurgical approaches. Direct recycling technologies combined with the profitable and sustainable cathode healing technology have significant potential for the recycling of LIBs without decomposition into substituent elements or precipitation; hence, these technologies can be industrially adopted for EV batteries. Finally, commercial technological developments, existing challenges, and suggestions are presented for the development of effective, environmentally friendly recycling technology for the future.

Multi-objective optimisation for cell-level disassembly of waste power battery modules in human-machine hybrid mode

The rapid global growth in the production of electric vehicles (EVs) will produce numerous waste power battery modules (WPBMs) in the future, which will create significant challenges concerning waste disposal. Therefore, measures to disassemble and recycle WPBMs before using them in other fixed scenarios provide an opportunity for research. First, considering battery components' hazards and complex properties, a human-machine collaborative cell-level disassembly model of WPBMs is proposed. Second, the WPBMs from the Tesla Model S are selected as the case study to verify reliability and validity. Finally, two different disassembly schemes are obtained by solving the proposed model using NSGA-II based on the actual data from resource-recycling companies. The results show that: 1) The proposed model and method can realize the cell-level disassembly of WPBMs and assign the disassembly tasks of hazard components to robots and the disassembly tasks of complex components to humans. 2) The two disassembly schemes obtained are two solutions that do not dominate each other, and the four objectives (number of workstations, workstation idle time, number of workers, and disassembly cost) are optimized simultaneously. 3) The proposed model can provide decision-makers with additional options when incorporating the number of workers into enterprise risk indicators.

Data-driven capacity estimation of commercial lithium-ion batteries from voltage relaxation

Accurate capacity estimation is crucial for the reliable and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries. In particular, exploiting the relaxation voltage curve features could enable battery capacity estimation without additional cycling information. Here, we report the study of three datasets comprising 130 commercial lithium-ion cells cycled under various conditions to evaluate the capacity estimation approach. One dataset is collected for model building from batteries with LiNi_0.86Co_0.11Al_0.03O₂-based positive electrodes. The other two datasets, used for validation, are obtained from batteries with LiNi_0.83Co_0.11Mn_0.07O₂-based positive electrodes and batteries with the blend of Li(NiCoMn)O₂ - Li(NiCoAl)O₂ positive electrodes. Base models that use machine learning methods are employed to estimate the battery capacity using features derived from the relaxation voltage profiles. The best model achieves a root-mean-square error of 1.1% for the dataset used for the model building. A transfer learning model is then developed by adding a featured linear transformation to the base model. This extended model achieves a root-mean-square error of less than 1.7% on the datasets used for the model validation, indicating the successful applicability of the capacity estimation approach utilizing cell voltage relaxation.

Accurate capacity estimation is crucial for lithium-ion batteries' reliable and safe operation. Here, the authors propose an approach exploiting features from the relaxation voltage curve for battery capacity estimation without requiring other previous cycling information.

Nanostructure Engineering Strategies of Cathode Materials for Room-Temperature Na-S Batteries

Room-temperature sodium-sulfur (RT Na-S) batteries are considered to be a competitive electrochemical energy storage system, due to their advantages in abundant natural reserves, inexpensive materials, and superb theoretical energy density. Nevertheless, RT Na-S batteries suffer from a series of critical challenges, especially on the S cathode side, including the insulating nature of S and its discharge products, volumetric fluctuation of S species during the (de)sodiation process, shuttle effect of soluble sodium polysulfides, and sluggish conversion kinetics. Recent studies have shown that nanostructural designs of S-based materials can greatly contribute to alleviating the aforementioned issues via their unique physicochemical properties and architectural features. In this review, we review frontier advancements in nanostructure engineering strategies of S-based cathode materials for RT Na-S batteries in the past decade. Our emphasis is focused on delicate and highly efficient design strategies of material nanostructures as well as interactions of component-structure-property at a nanosize level. We also present our prospects toward further functional engineering and applications of nanostructured S-based materials in RT Na-S batteries and point out some potential developmental directions.

A novel disassembly process of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries enhanced by online sensing and machine learning techniques

An effective lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling infrastructure is of great importance to alleviate the concerns over the disposal of waste LIBs and the sustainability of critical elements for producing LIB components. The End-of-life (EOL) LIBs are in various sizes and shapes, which create significant challenges to automate a few unit operations (e.g., disassembly at the cell level) of the recycling process. Meanwhile, hazardous and flammable materials are contained in LIBs, posing great threats to the human exposure. Therefore, it is difficult to dismantle the LIBs safely and efficiently to recover critical materials. Automation has become a competitive solution in manufacturing world, which allows for mass production at outstanding speeds and with great repeatability or quality. It is imperative to develop automatic disassembly solution to effectively disassemble the LIBs while safeguarding human workers against the hazards environment. In this work, we demonstrate an automatic battery disassembly platform enhanced by online sensing and machine learning technologies. The computer vision is used to classify different types of batteries based on their brands and sizes. The real-time temperature data is captured from a thermal camera. A data-driven model is built to predict the cutting temperature pattern and the temperature spike can be mitigated by the close-loop control system. Furthermore, quality control is conducted using a neural network model to detect and mitigate the cutting defects. The integrated disassembly platform can realize the real-time diagnosis and closed-loop control of the cutting process to optimize the cutting quality and improve the safety.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10845-022-01936-x.

Comprehensive Characterization of Shredded Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Material

Herein we report on an analytical study of dry‐shredded lithium‐ion battery (LIB) materials with unknown composition. Samples from an industrial recycling process were analyzed concerning the elemental composition and (organic) compound speciation. Deep understanding of the base material for LIB recycling was obtained by identification and analysis of transition metal stoichiometry, current collector metals, base electrolyte and electrolyte additive residues, aging marker molecules and polymer binder fingerprints. For reversed engineering purposes, the main electrode and electrolyte chemistries were traced back to pristine materials. Furthermore, possible lifetime application and accompanied aging was evaluated based on target analysis on characteristic molecules described in literature. With this, the reported analytics provided precious information for value estimation of the undefined spent batteries and enabled tailored recycling process deliberations. The comprehensive feedstock characterization shown in this work paves the way for targeted process control in LIB recycling processes.

Influence of Cell Opening Methods on Electrolyte Removal during Processing in Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are an important pillar for the sustainable transition of the mobility and energy storage sector. LIBs are complex devices for which waste management must incorporate different recycling technologies to produce high-quality secondary (raw) materials at high recycling efficiencies (RE). This contribution to LIB recycling investigated the influence of different pretreatment strategies on the subsequent processing. The experimental study combined different dismantling depths and depollution temperatures with subsequent crushing and thermal drying. Therein, the removal of organic solvent is quantified during liberation and separation. This allows to evaluate the safety of cell opening according to the initial depollution status. These process steps play a key role in the recycling of LIBs when using the low-temperature route. Therefore, combinations of pretreatment and processing steps regarding technical and economic feasibility are discussed. Moreover, the process medium and equipment properties for a safe cell opening, the technical recycling efficiencies and their consequences on future industrial LIB waste management are pointed out.

Critical strategies for recycling process of graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries: A review

With the explosive growth of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), the effective recycling of graphite as a key negative electrode material has become economically attractive and environmentally significant. This review reports the recent research progress in recycling strategies for spent graphite from the perspectives of separation and reuse. First, technologies for separating graphite powder after direct crushing and artificially splitting are introduced, and the shortcomings of cost control and separation efficiency are reported. Subsequently, the reuse of recycled spent graphite is systematically summarized in terms of regeneration into battery materials, low-value utilization, and high-value conversion. Special attention has been paid to different aging degrees of retired batteries, as well as the performance and applications of regenerated graphite. Finally, upcoming research efforts on evaluation the standard establishment, development of advanced technology, and potential value enhancement to meet practical the industrial conditions and facilitate industry installation are proposed.

Cumulative Emissions of CO2 for Electric and Combustion Cars: A Case Study on Specific Models

This work includes calculations of the cumulative CO2 emissions of two comparable cars—the VW Golf VII—one with a combustion engine and the other with an electric motor. Calculation of CO2 emissions was performed, taking into account the stages of production, utilization and use of the above-mentioned vehicles. For the use phase, it was assumed that the total mileage of the car will be 150,000 km over 10 years. For the electric vehicle, calculations were made assuming five different sources of electricity (from coal only, from natural gas only, from PV and wind turbines, an average mix of European power sources and an average mix of Polish power sources; W1–W5 designations, respectively). For individual sources of electricity, cumulative CO2 emissions were taken into account, that is, resulting both from the production of electricity and the use of the resources (for example, technical service per 1 kWh of electricity produced). The obtained results of the analysis show that for the adopted assumptions regarding operation, for variants W2–W5, the use of an electric car results in lower cumulative CO2 emission than a the use of a combustion car. For a combustion car, the value was 37,000 kg-CO2, and for an electric car, depending on the variant, the value was 43, 31, 16, 23 and 34 thousand kg-CO2 for variants W1 to W5, respectively. Based on the emissions results obtained for individual stages of the use of selected vehicles, a comparative analysis of cumulative CO2 emissions was performed. The purpose of this analysis was to determine whether the replacement of an existing combustion car (that has already been manufactured; therefore, this part of the analysis does not include CO2 emissions in the production stage) with a new electric car, which has to be manufactured, therefore associated with additional CO2 emissions, would reduce cumulative CO2 emissions. Considering three adopted average annual car mileages (3000, 7500 and 15,000 km) and the previously described power options (W1–W5), we sought an answer as to whether the use of a new electric car would be burdened with lower cumulative CO2 emissions. In this case we assumed an analysis time of 15 years. For the worst variant from the point of view of CO2 emissions (W1, electricity from coal power sources only), further use of a combustion car is associated with lower cumulative CO2 emissions than the purchase of a new electric car over the entire analyzed period of 15 years. In turn, for the most advantageous variant (W3, electricity from PV or wind power sources) with an annual mileage of 3000 km, the purchase of a new electric car results in higher cumulative CO2 emissions throughout the analyzed period, whereas for an annual milage of 7500 or 15,000 km, replacing the car with an electric car “pays back” in terms of cumulative CO2 emissions after 8.5 or 4 years, respectively.

Ternary Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) with a Regulated Rate-Determining Step for Efficient Recycling of Lithium Cobalt Oxide

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have attracted extensive research for their potential applications as leaching solvent to recycle valuable metal elements from spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs). Despite various advantages like being economical and green, the full potential of conventional binary DES has not yet been harnessed because of the kinetics during leaching. Herein, we consider the fundamental rate-determining-step (RDS) in conventional binary DES and attempt to design ternary DES, within which the chemical reaction kinetics and diffusion kinetics can be regulated to maximize the overall leaching rate. As a proof of concept, we show that the ternary choline chloride/succinic acid/ethylene glycol (ChCl/SA/EG) type ternary DES can completely dissolve LCO powder at 140 °C in 16 h. By systematically studying the leaching process at various conditions, the energy barrier during leaching can be calculated to be 11.77 kJ/mol. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the extraction of the cobalt ions from the leaching solution can be directly achieved by adding oxalic ions without neutralizing the solution. The precipitate can be used to regenerate LCO with high purity. The recycled materials show comparable electrochemical performance with commercial LCO. Our design strategy of ternary DES with regulated RDS is expected to have both scientific and technological significance in the field of hydrometallurgical recycling of LIBs.

A Review on Regenerating Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

Recycling spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have attracted increasing attention for their great significance in environmental protection and cyclic resources utilization. Numerous studies focus on developing technologies for the treatment of spent LIBs. Among them, the regeneration of functional materials from spent LIBs has received great attention due to its short process route and high value-added product. This paper briefly summarizes the current status of spent LIBs recycling and details the existing processes and technologies for preparing various materials from spent LIBs. In addition, the benefits of material preparation from spent LIBs, compared with metals recovery only, are analyzed from both environmental and economic aspects. Lastly, the existing challenges and suggestions for the regeneration process are proposed.

A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries

The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.

Modeling potential impact of COVID-19 pandemic on global electric vehicle supply chain

The on-going COVID-19 pandemic and consequent lockdowns cast significant impacts on global economy in the short run. Their impact on stability of global electric vehicles (EVs) supply chain and thus our climate ambition in the long run, however, remains hitherto largely unexplored. We aim to address this gap based on an integrated model framework, including assessing supply risks of 17 selected core commodities throughout the EV supply chain and further applying the supply constraints to project future EV sales until 2030. Our model results under three pandemic development scenarios indicate that if the pandemic is effectively contained before 2024, the global EV industry will recover without fundamentally scathed and thus can maintain the same growth trend as in the no-pandemic scenario by 2030. We suggest that fiscal stimulus in the postpandemic era should be directed more toward upgrading the quality of battery products, rather than expanding the production capacity.

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Lithium is the most critical commodity for the electric vehicle industry

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Short-term COVID-19 pandemic will not cause constraints on the production side

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Long-term pandemic can seriously jeopardize electric vehicle market development

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Postpandemic policies should focus more on improving battery quality