Attitudes towards and evaluation of medical emergency teams: a survey of trainees in intensive care medicine

A survey was conducted to explore the perception of intensive care registrars on the impact of activities outside the intensive care unit (ICU), particularly in medical emergency teams, on their training and the care of patients. An anonymous mail-out survey was sent to 356 trainees registered with the Joint Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine, half of whom were determined to be involved in ICU duties. No patients were involved and respondents participated voluntarily. The main outcome measures were barriers and predictors of satisfaction with ICU training. One-hundred-and-thirty-six (38%) trainees responded. Seventy-eight percent had participated in a medical emergency team, of whom 99% of respondents stated the medical emergency team included an ICU registrar but rarely (3%) an ICU consultant. Sixty-six percent of respondents reported that medical emergency team involvement had a positive effect on training but 77% reported little or no supervision of team duties. While trainees did not believe they spent too much time performing medical emergency team duties, the time spent on medical emergency teams at night, when ICU staffing levels are at their lowest, was the same as during the day. Serious concern was expressed about the negative impact of medical emergency team activities on their ability to care for ICU patients and the additional stress on ICU medical and nursing staff Overall, ICU trainees regarded participation in a medical emergency team as positive on training and on patient care in wards, but other results have resource implications for the provision of clinical emergency response systems, care of patients in ICUs and the training of the future intensive care workforce.

Introduction of an obstetric-specific medical emergency team for obstetric crises: implementation and experience

OBJECTIVE

We describe the implementation and experience with adding an obstetric-specific medical emergency team (called Condition O for obstetric crisis) to an existing rapid response system at Magee-Womens Hospital.

STUDY DESIGN

In response to deficits identified during patient safety review of adverse obstetric events in 2004 and 2005, the hospital administration decided to add a crisis team with expertise specifically designed for maternal and/or fetal crises.

RESULTS

During the first 6 months, staff rarely called Condition O (14 per 10,000 obstetric admissions). After reeducation efforts, use of Condition O increased to 62 per 10,000 obstetric admissions during 2006.

CONCLUSION

We outline our hospital's experience with implementation, efforts to address low utilization, and 1.5 years of Condition O event data. Condition O is a work in progress. In light of this, we discuss the challenges of measuring its patient safety outcome, considerations for team size and composition, and our efforts to determine an optimal Condition O rate.

Is There NO Treatment For Severe Sepsis?

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response syndrome in the presence of suspected or proven infection, and it may progress to or encompass organ failure (severe sepsis) and hypotension (septic shock). Clinicians possess an arsenal of supportive measures to combat severe sepsis and septic shock, and some success, albeit controversial, has been achieved by using low doses of corticosteroids or recombinant human activated protein C. However, a truly effective mediator-directed specific treatment has not been developed yet. Treatment with low doses of corticosteroids or with recombinant human activated protein C remains controversial and its success very limited. Attempts to treat shock by blocking LPS, TNF or IL-1 were unsuccessful, as were attempts to use interferon-gamma or granulocyte colony stimulating factor. Inhibiting nitric oxide synthases held promise but met with considerable difficulties. Scavenging excess nitric oxide or targeting molecules downstream of inducible nitric oxide synthase, such as soluble guanylate cyclase or potassium channels, might offer other alternatives.

Bench-to-bedside review: The MET syndrome--the challenges of researching and adopting medical emergency teams

Studies of hospital performance highlight the problem of 'failure to rescue' in acutely ill patients. This is a deficiency strongly associated with serious adverse events, cardiac arrest, or death. Rapid response systems (RRSs) and their efferent arm, the medical emergency team (MET), provide early specialist critical care to patients affected by the 'MET syndrome': unequivocal physiological instability or significant hospital staff concern for patients in a non-critical care environment. This intervention aims to prevent serious adverse events, cardiac arrests, and unexpected deaths. Though clinically logical and relatively simple, its adoption poses major challenges. Furthermore, research about the effectiveness of RRS is difficult to conduct. Sceptics argue that inadequate evidence exists to support its widespread application. Indeed, supportive evidence is based on before-and-after studies, observational investigations, and inductive reasoning. However, implementing a complex intervention like RRS poses enormous logistic, political, cultural, and financial challenges. In addition, double-blinded randomised controlled trials of RRS are simply not possible. Instead, as in the case of cardiac arrest and trauma teams, change in practice may be slow and progressive, even in the absence of level I evidence. It appears likely that the accumulation of evidence from different settings and situations, though methodologically imperfect, will increase the rationale and logic of RRS. A conclusive randomised controlled trial is unlikely to occur.

All truth passes through three stages.

First, it is ridiculed.

Second, it is violently opposed.

Third, it is accepted as being self-evident.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), German philosopher

Interprofessional education: effects on professional practice and health care outcomes

BACKGROUND

Patient care is a complex activity which demands that health and social care professionals work together in an effective manner. The evidence suggests, however, that these professionals do not collaborate well together. Interprofessional education (IPE) offers a possible way to improve collaboration and patient care.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of IPE interventions compared to education interventions in which the same health and social care professionals learn separately from one another; and to assess the effectiveness of IPE interventions compared to no education intervention.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group specialised register, MEDLINE and CINAHL, for the years 1999 to 2006. We also handsearched the Journal of Interprofessional Care (1999 to 2006), reference lists of the six included studies and leading IPE books, IPE conference proceedings, and websites of IPE organisations.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), controlled before and after (CBA) studies and interrupted time series (ITS) studies of IPE interventions that reported objectively measured or self reported (validated instrument) patient/client and/or healthcare process outcomes.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently assessed the eligibility of potentially relevant studies, and extracted data from, and assessed study quality of, included studies. A meta-analysis of study outcomes was not possible given the small number of included studies and the heterogeneity in methodological designs and outcome measures. Consequently, the results are presented in a narrative format.

MAIN RESULTS

We included six studies (four RCTs and two CBA studies). Four of these studies indicated that IPE produced positive outcomes in the following areas: emergency department culture and patient satisfaction; collaborative team behaviour and reduction of clinical error rates for emergency department teams; management of care delivered to domestic violence victims; and mental health practitioner competencies related to the delivery of patient care. In addition, two of the six studies reported mixed outcomes (positive and neutral) and two studies reported that the IPE interventions had no impact on either professional practice or patient care.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This updated review found six studies that met the inclusion criteria, in contrast to our first review that found no eligible studies. Although these studies reported some positive outcomes, due to the small number of studies, the heterogeneity of interventions, and the methodological limitations, it is not possible to draw generalisable inferences about the key elements of IPE and its effectiveness. More rigorous IPE studies (i.e. those employing RCTs, CBA or ITS designs with rigorous randomisation procedures, better allocation concealment, larger sample sizes, and more appropriate control groups) are needed to provide better evidence of the impact of IPE on professional practice and healthcare outcomes. These studies should also include data collection strategies that provide insight into how IPE affects changes in health care processes and patient outcomes.

Role of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel inhibition in shock states: physiology and clinical implications

Shock states are associated with an impaired tissue oxygen supply-demand relationship and perturbations within the microcirculation, leading to global tissue hypoxia, finally resulting in multiple-organ failure or even death. Two of the most frequent causes of shock are acute hemorrhage and sepsis. Although the origin and the pathophysiology of hemorrhagic and septic shock are basically different, the involvement of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels, as an important regulator of vascular smooth muscles tone, plays a pivotal role under both conditions. Because the excessive activation of vascular KATP channels is a major cause of arterial hypotension and vascular hyporesponsiveness to catecholamines, the pharmacological inhibition of KATP channels may represent a goal-directed therapeutic option to stabilize the hemodynamic situation in shock states. Despite promising results of preclinical studies, the efficacy of this innovative therapeutic approach remains to be confirmed in the clinical setting. The differences in the species, the comorbidity, and the difficulty in determining the exact onset of shock in clinical practice and, thus, any duration-related alterations in vascular responses and KATP channel activation may explain the discrepancy between the results obtained from experimental and clinical studies. Currently, two of the most relevant problems related to effective KATP blockade in shock states are represented by (1) the dose itself (benefit-risk ratio) and (2) the route of administration (oral vs. i.v.). This review article critically elucidates the published in vivo studies on the role of KATP channel inhibition in both described shock forms and discusses the advantages and the potential pitfalls related to the treatment of human shock states.

Glibenclamide dose response in patients with septic shock: effects on norepinephrine requirements, cardiopulmonary performance, and global oxygen transport

Adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels are important regulators of arterial vascular smooth muscle tone and are implicated in the pathophysiology of catecholamine tachyphylaxis in septic shock. The present study was designed as a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, clinical pilot study to determine whether different doses of glibenclamide have any effects on norepinephrine requirements, cardiopulmonary hemodynamics, and global oxygen transport in patients with septic shock. We enrolled 30 patients with septic shock requiring invasive hemodynamic monitoring and norepinephrine infusion of 0.5 microg.kg-1.min-1 or greater to maintain MAP between 65 and 75 mmHg. In addition to standard therapy, patients were randomized to receive either 10, 20, or 30 mg of enteral glibenclamide. Systemic hemodynamics, global oxygen transport including arterial lactate concentrations, gas exchange, plasma glucose concentrations, and electrolytes were determined at baseline and after 3, 6, and 12 h after administration of the study drug. Glibenclamide decreased plasma glucose concentrations in a dose-dependent manner but failed to reduce norepinephrine requirements. None of the doses had any effects on cardiopulmonary hemodynamics, global oxygen transport, gas exchange, or electrolytes. These data suggest that oral glibenclamide in doses from 10 to 30 mg fails to counteract arterial hypotension and thus to reduce norepinephrine requirements in catecholamine-dependent human septic shock.

Endothelial dependence of matrix metalloproteinase-mediated vascular hyporeactivity caused by lipopolysaccharide

Septic shock remains the leading cause of death in intensive care units in North America. Recent evidence implicates matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) in the pathogenesis of sepsis. MMP activity is upregulated in blood vessels exposed to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or pro-inflammatory cytokines and contributes to vascular hyporeactivity to vasoconstrictors. The exact mechanism of MMP-mediated vascular hyporeactivity is unknown. We investigated the contribution of the endothelium in the MMP response to LPS-mediated vascular hyporeactivity in vitro. Tone induced by phenylephrine in isolated rat aortic rings with either intact or denuded endothelium was measured in the presence of LPS for 6 h. These rings were incubated with the nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), to determine whether NO synthase was involved in the response, or the MMP inhibitors, doxycycline or GM6001. MMP activity was measured after 6 h. LPS caused a greater reduction of phenylephrine-induced tone in endothelium-intact rings versus endothelium-denuded rings, indicating both endothelium-independent and -dependent mechanisms for LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity. l-NAME abolished the response to LPS in both endothelium-intact and endothelium-denuded rings. MMP inhibitors prevented the LPS-induced loss of tone in endothelium-intact but not endothelium-denuded rings. LPS caused significantly greater MMP-2 activity in endothelium-intact aortae which was attenuated by doxycycline. MMP-2 activity in endothelium-denuded aortae was unchanged by LPS. The vascular endothelium contributes to MMP-mediated vascular dysfunction induced by LPS. The protective effect of MMP inhibition is endothelium-dependent and is a novel mechanism by which MMPs contribute to vascular dysfunction.

Vascular biology in sepsis: pathophysiological and therapeutic significance of vascular dysfunction

Sepsis is the leading cause of mortality in critically ill patients. In this pathological syndrome, septic shock and sequential multiple organ failure correlate with poor outcome. The pathophysiology of sepsis with acute organ dysfunction involves a highly complex, integrated response that includes activation of number of cell types, inflammatory mediators, and the hemostatic system. Central to this process may be alterations in vascular functions. This review article provides a growing body of evidence for the potential impact of vascular dysfunction on sepsis pathophysiology with a major emphasis on the endothelium. Furthermore, the role of apoptotic signaling molecules in the mechanisms underlying endothelial cell injury and death during sepsis and its potential value as a target for sepsis therapy will be discussed, which may help in the assessment of ongoing therapeutic strategies.

Nurses' critical event risk assessments: a judgement analysis

AIMS

To explore and explain nurses' use of readily available clinical information when deciding whether a patient is at risk of a critical event.

BACKGROUND

Half of inpatients who suffer a cardiac arrest have documented but unacted upon clinical signs of deterioration in the 24 hours prior to the event. Nurses appear to be both misinterpreting and mismanaging the nursing-knowledge 'basics' such as heart rate, respiratory rate and oxygenation. Whilst many medical interventions originate from nurses, up to 26% of nurses' responses to abnormal signs result in delays of between one and three hours.

METHODS

A double system judgement analysis using Brunswik's lens model of cognition was undertaken with 245 Dutch, UK, Canadian and Australian acute care nurses. Nurses were asked to judge the likelihood of a critical event, 'at-risk' status, and whether they would intervene in response to 50 computer-presented clinical scenarios in which data on heart rate, systolic blood pressure, urine output, oxygen saturation, conscious level and oxygenation support were varied. Nurses were also presented with a protocol recommendation and also placed under time pressure for some of the scenarios. The ecological criterion was the predicted level of risk from the Modified Early Warning Score assessments of 232 UK acute care inpatients.

RESULTS

Despite receiving identical information, nurses varied considerably in their risk assessments. The differences can be partly explained by variability in weightings given to information. Time and protocol recommendations were given more weighting than clinical information for key dichotomous choices such as classifying a patient as 'at risk' and deciding to intervene. Nurses' weighting of cues did not mirror the same information's contribution to risk in real patients. Nurses synthesized information in non-linear ways that contributed little to decisional accuracy. The low-moderate achievement (R(a)) statistics suggests that nurses' assessments of risk were largely inaccurate; these assessments were applied consistently among 'patients' (scenarios). Critical care experience was statistically associated with estimates of risk, but not with the decision to intervene.

CONCLUSION

Nurses overestimated the risk and the need to intervene in simulated paper patients at risk of a critical event. This average response masked considerable variation in risk predictions, the need for action and the weighting afforded to the information they had available to them. Nurses did not make use of the linear reasoning required for accurate risk predictions in this task. They also failed to employ any unique knowledge that could be shown to make them more accurate. The influence of time pressure and protocol recommendations depended on the kind of judgement faced suggesting then that knowing more about the types of decisions nurses face may influence information use.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Practice developers and educators need to pay attention to the quality of nurses' clinical experience as well as the quantity when developing judgement expertise in nurses. Intuitive unaided decision making in the assessment of risk may not be as accurate as supported decision making. Practice developers and educators should consider teaching nurses normative rules for revising probabilities (even subjective ones) such as Bayes' rule for diagnostic or assessment judgements and also that linear ways of thinking, in which decision support may help, may be useful for many choices that nurses face. Nursing needs to separate the rhetoric of 'holism' and 'expertise' from the science of predictive validity, accuracy and competence in judgement and decision making.

Effects of rapid response systems on clinical outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

A rapid response system (RRS) consists of providers who immediately assess and treat unstable hospitalized patients. Examples include medical emergency teams and rapid response teams. Early reports of major improvements in patient outcomes led to widespread utilization of RRSs, despite the negative results of a subsequent cluster-randomized trial.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of RRSs on clinical outcomes through a systematic literature review.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, BIOSIS, and CINAHL searches through August 2006, review of conference proceedings and article bibliographies.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials, interrupted time series, and before-after studies reporting effects of an RRS on inpatient mortality, cardiopulmonary arrests, or unscheduled ICU admissions.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two authors independently determined study eligibility, abstracted data, and classified study quality.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Thirteen studies met inclusion criteria: 1 cluster-randomized controlled trial (RCT), 1 interrupted time series, and 11 before-after studies. The RCT showed no effects on any clinical outcome. Before-after studies showed reductions in inpatient mortality (RR = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.74-0.91) and cardiac arrest (RR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.65-0.83). However, these studies were of poor methodological quality, and control hospitals in the RCT reported reductions in mortality and cardiac arrest rates comparable to those in the before-after studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Published studies of RRSs have not found consistent improvement in clinical outcomes and have been of poor methodological quality. The positive results of before-after trials likely reflects secular trends and biased outcome ascertainment, as the improved outcomes they reported were of similar magnitude to those of the control group in the RCT. The effectiveness of the RRS concept remains unproven.

Mature rapid response system and potentially avoidable cardiopulmonary arrests in hospital

OBJECTIVE

To study the incidence, outcome and potentially avoidable causes of inpatient cardiopulmonary arrests in a hospital with a "mature" rapid response system (RRS).

DESIGN

Retrospective observational study of all cardiopulmonary arrest events in 2005.

SETTING

University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, a 730-bed academic, urban, tertiary care adult hospital in the USA.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

RESULTS

During the calendar year 2005, the 16th year since the establishment of a medical emergency team (MET)/RRS, the MET was activated 1942 times; 111 of these events were cardiopulmonary arrest events (3.26 arrest events/1000 patient admissions), and 1831 were non-arrest patient crisis events (53.8 crisis events/1000 patient admissions). A review of the 104 index cardiopulmonary arrest events revealed that 26 (25%) patients survived to discharge. Event survival decreased as the intensity of patient monitoring decreased (83% in intensive care units, 69% in monitored, and 36% in unmonitored units; p = 0.002), but the rate of subsequent in-hospital death was higher in the more intensely monitored settings (60%, 38%, 23%, respectively; p = 0.022). Nineteen (18%) arrests were deemed to be "potentially avoidable". Avoidable arrests were classified as: failure to adhere to established hospital patient care guideline or policy; inadequate monitoring or surveillance; or delays in dealing with patient needs including delay in MET/RRS activation.

CONCLUSIONS

In spite of the high crisis event rate and a low rate of cardiac arrests, potentially avoidable cardiopulmonary arrests still occurred. According to the present study more cardiopulmonary arrest events might be avoided by better adherence to hospital patient care policies, by closer monitoring on floors and by preventing delays in addressing deterioration in patient condition.

The effect of a rapid response team on major clinical outcome measures in a community hospital*

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of a rapid response system composed primarily of a rapid response team led by physician assistants on the rates of in-hospital cardiac arrests, total and unplanned intensive care unit admissions, and hospital mortality.

DESIGN

Prospective, controlled, before and after trial.

SETTING

A 350-bed nonteaching community hospital.

PATIENTS

All adult patients admitted to the hospital from May 1, 2005, to October 1, 2006.

INTERVENTIONS

We introduced a hospital-wide rapid response system that included a rapid response team (RRT) led by physician assistants with specialized critical care training.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We measured the incidence of cardiac arrests that occurred outside of the intensive care unit, total intensive care unit admissions, unplanned intensive care unit admissions, intensive care unit length of stay, and the total hospital mortality rate occurring over the study period. There were 344 RRT calls during the study period. In the 5 months before the rapid response system began, there were an average of 7.6 cardiac arrests per 1,000 discharges per month. In the subsequent 13 months, that figure decreased to 3.0 cardiac arrests per 1,000 discharges per month. Overall hospital mortality the year before the rapid response system was 2.82% and decreased to 2.35% by the end of the RRT year. The percentage of intensive care unit admissions that were unplanned decreased from 45% to 29%. Linear regression analysis of key outcome variables showed strong associations with the implementation of the rapid response system, as did analysis of variables over time. Physician assistants successfully managed emergency airway situations without assistance in the majority of cases.

CONCLUSIONS

The deployment of an RRT led by physician assistants with specialized skills was associated with significant decreases in rates of in-hospital cardiac arrest and unplanned intensive care unit admissions.

Long-term effect of a Medical Emergency Team on mortality in a teaching hospital

AIM

To assess the effect of a Medical Emergency Team (MET) service on patient mortality in the 4 years since its introduction into a teaching hospital.

METHODS

Using the hospital electronic database we obtained the number of admissions and in-hospital deaths "before-" (September 1998-August 1999), "during education-" (September 1999-August 2000), the "run-in period-" (September 2000-October 2000), and "after-" (November 2000-December 2004) the introduction of a MET service, intended to review and treat acutely unwell ward patients.

RESULTS

There were 42,230 surgical and 112,321 medical admissions over the study period. During the education period for the MET the odds ratio (OR) of death for surgical patients was 0.82 compared to the "before" MET period (95% CI 0.67-1.00; p=0.055). During the 2 month "run-in" period it remained statistically unchanged at 1.01 (95% CI 0.67-1.51; p=0.33). In the 4 years "after" introduction of the MET, the OR of death for surgical patients remained lower than the "before" MET period (multiple chi(2)-test p=0.0174). There were 1252 surgical MET calls, and in December 2004 the ratio of surgical MET calls to surgical deaths was 1.76:1. In contrast, in-hospital deaths for medical patients increased during the "education period", the "run-in" period and into the first year "after" the introduction of the MET (multiple chi(2)-test p<0.0001). There were 1278 medical MET calls, and in December 2004 the ratio of medical MET calls to medical deaths was 1:2.47 (0.41:1). For each 12-month period, the relative risk of death for medical patients as opposed to surgical patients ranged between 1.32 and 2.40.

CONCLUSIONS

Introduction of an Intensive Care-based MET in a university teaching hospital was associated with a fluctuating reduction in post-operative surgical mortality which was already apparent during the education phase, but a sustained increase in the mortality of medical patients which was similarly already apparent during the education phase. The differential effects on mortality may relate to differences in the degree of disease complexity and reversibility between medical and surgical patients.

Continuously infused glipizide reverses the hyperdynamic circulation in ovine endotoxemia

In advanced sepsis, hemodynamic support is often complicated by a tachyphylaxis against exogenous catecholamines. Although activation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium (K(ATP)) channels plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of hyperdynamic vasodilatory shock, previous studies demonstrated only a transient increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) after bolus administration of K(ATP) channel inhibitors. We hypothesized that a continuous infusion of the sulfonylurea glipizide, a K(ATP) channel inhibitor, may reverse cardiovascular dysfunctions in sepsis permanently. Eighteen adult sheep were instrumented for chronic study. After a baseline measurement in healthy ewes, endotoxin (Salmonella typhosa, 10 ng kg(-1) min(-1)) was continuously infused for 19 h. After 16 h of endotoxemia, the surviving sheep (n = 14) were randomly assigned to be treated with either glipizide (5 mg/kg, followed by a continuous infusion of 8 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) or placebo (normal saline; each n = 7). Measurements of cardiopulmonary hemodynamics, global oxygen transport, acid-base status, and urine output were performed in the healthy state, after 16 h of endotoxemia, and during 3 h of glipizide infusion. Continuous infusion of glipizide reversed the endotoxin-induced hyperdynamic circulation, as indicated by significant increases in MAP and systemic vascular resistance index, as well as decreases in cardiac index and heart rate (P < 0.001 each). In addition, glipizide increased urine output as compared with untreated controls (P < 0.001). The anticipated decrease in glucose plasma levels was prevented by infusion of glucose 5%. From these results, we conclude that continuous glipizide infusion may represent a useful therapeutic option in the treatment of arterial hypotension related to sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome.

Outreach and Early Warning Systems (EWS) for the prevention of intensive care admission and death of critically ill adult patients on general hospital wards

BACKGROUND

Despite the fact that outreach and early warning systems (EWS) are an integral part of a hospital wide systems approach to improve the early identification and management of deteriorating patients on general hospital wards, the widespread implementation of these interventions in practice is not based on robust research evidence.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective was to determine the impact of critical care outreach services on hospital mortality rates. Secondary objectives included determining the effect of outreach services on intensive care unit (ICU) admission patterns, length of hospital stay and adverse events.

SEARCH STRATEGY

The review authors searched the following electronic databases: EPOC Specialised Register, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) and other Cochrane databases (all on The Cochrane Library 2006, Issue 3), MEDLINE (1996-June week 3 2006), EMBASE (1974-week 26 2006), CINAHL (1982-July week 5 2006), First Search (1992-2005) and CAB Health (1990-July 2006); also reference lists of relevant articles, conference abstracts, and made contact with experts and critical care organisations for further information.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), controlled clinical trials (CCTs), controlled before and after studies (CBAs) and interrupted time series designs (ITS) which measured hospital mortality, unanticipated ICU admissions, ICU readmissions, length of hospital stay and adverse events following implementation of outreach and EWS in a general hospital ward to identify deteriorating adult patients versus general hospital ward setting without outreach and EWS were included in the review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Three review authors independently extracted data and two review authors assessed the methodological quality of the included studies. Meta-analysis was not possible due to heterogeneity. Summary statistics and descriptive summaries of primary and secondary outcomes are presented for each study.

MAIN RESULTS

Two cluster-randomised control trials were included: one randomised at hospital level (23 hospitals in Australia) and one at ward level (16 wards in the UK). The primary outcome in the Australian trial (a composite score comprising incidence of unexpected cardiac arrests, unexpected deaths and unplanned ICU admissions) showed no statistical significant difference between control and medical emergency team (MET) hospitals (adjusted P value 0.640; adjusted odds ratio (OR) 0.98; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.83 to 1.16). The UK-based trial found that outreach reduced in-hospital mortality (adjusted OR 0.52; 95% CI 0.32 to 0.85) compared with the control group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The evidence from this review highlights the diversity and poor methodological quality of most studies investigating outreach. The results of the two included studies showed either no evidence of the effectiveness of outreach or a reduction in overall mortality in patients receiving outreach. The lack of evidence on outreach requires further multi-site RCT's to determine potential effectiveness.

Nitric oxide in shock

Refractory hypotension with end-organ hypoperfusion and failure is an ominous feature of shock. Distributive shock is caused by severe infections (septic shock) or severe systemic allergic reactions (anaphylactic shock). In 1986, it was concluded that nitric oxide (NO) is the endothelium-derived relaxing factor that had been discovered 6 years earlier. Since then, NO has been shown to be important for the physiological and pathological control of vascular tone. Nevertheless, although inhibition of NO synthesis restores blood pressure, NO synthase (NOS) inhibition cannot improve outcome, on the contrary. This implies that NO acts as a double-edged sword during septic shock. Consequently, the focus has shifted towards selective inducible NOS (iNOS) inhibitors. The contribution of NO to anaphylactic shock seems to be more straightforward, as NOS inhibition abrogates shock in conscious mice. Surprisingly, however, this shock-inducing NO is not produced by the inducible iNOS, but by the so-called constitutive enzyme endothelial NOS. This review summarizes the contribution of NO to septic and anaphylactic shock. Although NOS inhibition may be promising for the treatment of anaphylactic shock, the failure of a phase III trial indicates that other approaches are required for the successful treatment of septic shock. Amongst these, high hopes are set for selective iNOS inhibitors. But it might also be necessary to shift gears and focus on downstream cardiovascular targets of NO or on other vasodilating phenomena.

Effect of the medical emergency team on long-term mortality following major surgery

Introduction

Introducing an intensive care unit (ICU)-based medical emergency team (MET) into our hospital was associated with decreased postoperative in-hospital mortality after major surgery. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of the MET and other variables on long-term mortality in this patient population.

Methods

We conducted a prospective, controlled, before-and-after trial in a University-affiliated hospital. Participants included consecutive patients admitted for major surgery (surgery requiring hospital stay > 48 hours) during a four month control phase and a four month MET phase. The intervention involved the introduction of a hospital-wide ICU-based MET service to evaluate and treat ward patients with acutely deranged vital signs. Information on long-term mortality was obtained from the Australian death registry. The main outcome measure was patient mortality at 1500 days. Data on patient demographics, surgery undertaken and whether the surgery was scheduled or unscheduled was obtained from the hospital electronic database. Multivariable analysis was conducted to determine independent predictors of 1500-day mortality.

Results

There were 1,369 major operations in 1,116 patients during the control period and 1,313 operations in 1,067 patients during the MET (intervention) period. Overall survival at 1500 days was 65.8% in the control period and 71.6% during the MET period (P = 0.001). Patients in the control phase were statistically less likely to be admitted under orthopaedic surgery, urology and faciomaxillary surgery units, but more likely to be admitted under cardiac surgery or neurosurgery units. Patients in the MET period were less likely to undergo unscheduled surgery. Multivariable analysis revealed that age, unscheduled surgery and admission under thoracic surgery, neurosurgery, oncology and general medicine were independent predictors of increased 1500-day mortality. Admission during the MET period was also an independent predictor of decreased 1500-day mortality (odds ratio 0.74; P = 0.005).

Conclusion

Introduction of a MET service in a teaching hospital was associated with increased long-term survival even after adjusting for other factors that contribute to long-term surgical mortality.

Implementation of a Rapid Response Team Decreases Cardiac Arrest Outside of the Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND

Patient safety and preventable inhospital mortality remain crucial aspects of optimum medical care and continue to receive public scrutiny. Signs of physiologic instability often precede overt clinical deterioration in many patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate our early experience with implementation of a rapid response team (RRT) which would evaluate and treat nonintensive care unit (nonICU) patients with early signs of physiologic instability. We hypothesized that early evaluation and intervention before deterioration would avoid progression to cardiac arrest in patients.

METHODS

In March 2005, our urban Level I trauma center implemented an RRT to react to patient clinical deterioration; in effect, bringing critical care to the bedside. This team is available 24 hours/day, 7 seven days/week and consists of an intensivist, an ICU nurse, and a respiratory therapist. Activation criteria include pulse<40 or>130 beats per minute, systolic blood pressure<90 mm Hg, respiratory rate<8 or>24 breaths per minute, seizure, an acute change in mental status, or nursing staff concern for any other reason. Data were prospectively collected, including the number of RRT activations and the occurrence of inhospital cardiac arrest.

RESULTS

Between March and December 2005, the RRT was activated 76 times. All RRT activations were reviewed and thought to be appropriate. During the same time period the year before initiation of the RRT, there were 27 nonICU cardiac arrests. After RRT implementation, there were 13 cardiac arrests that occurred on the floor, representing just over a 50% reduction in cardiac arrest. Medical staff feedback regarding the RRT was uniformly positive.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of the RRT was well received by the hospital staff. Despite initial concerns to the contrary, the RRT was not over utilized. RRT activation resulted in early patient transfer to a higher level of care and avoided progression to cardiac arrest.

Frequency and pattern of medical emergency team activation among medical cardiology patient care units

Medical emergency teams are developing across the United States. The organization and implementation for a rapid response team to failing medical-surgical patients has been shown to reduce in-house cardiac arrest rates. Further investigation into the frequency and pattern for rapid response team calls has been shown to have a diurnal pattern and clustered around times associated with routine care activities. The medical emergency calls in the descriptive analysis reveal that calls to the medical cardiology units constitute--% of the total calls. The calls are found to be called with--frequency during the hours of 7 AM and 7 PM. The frequency of calls is shown to be clustered around the times of. The small descriptive analysis here suggests that further investigation in the patterns and monitoring of patient for early recognition to call for help is still needed.

Introduction of a rapid response system: why we are glad we MET

Hospital patients can experience serious adverse events during their stay. To identify, review and treat these patients and to prevent serious adverse events, we introduced a medical emergency team (MET) service into our hospital in September 2000 following a 1-year period of preparation and education. The introduction of the MET into our institution has been associated with profound changes to cultural and medical practice that have affected the way in which the intensive care unit and the hospital view the roles of junior doctors, nurses, intensive care physicians, and senior doctors. These changes have also been associated with a progressive reduction in the incidence of cardiac arrests of close to 70%. Furthermore, they have allowed improved analysis and characterization of 'at-risk' patients and their needs. Four years later, we remain glad we MET.

Medical emergency teams: a role for expanding intensive care?

BACKGROUND

A high incidence of preventable adverse events and deaths in hospitals has triggered initiatives to improve the quality of care of acutely ill in-hospital patients. System changes involving the introduction of medical emergency teams, outreach services or rapid response teams are an integral part of these initiatives. The rationale for implementing a designated team is that early recognition and rapid institution of adequate therapy for the deteriorating patient can improve outcome. The concept of bringing intensive care expertise to any acutely ill patient irrespective of location within the hospital is envisioned as "critical care without walls".

METHODS

Studies were identified by a PubMed search and cited references in key publications provided additional material including www-resources. More than 80 studies were identified and selected for review, however, no formal search strategy for a systematic review or meta-analysis was attempted. Only studies published in English were considered.

RESULTS

Several non-randomized, before-and-after cohort studies demonstrate that implementation of medical emergency teams and equivalents can reduce the incidence of cardiac arrests, unexpected deaths, and unplanned intensive care admissions. However, one recent randomized, controlled trial of medical emergency teams failed to demonstrate any differences in outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Several key operational issues need to be addressed before introducing medical emergency response teams based on current evidence. These issues include differences in healthcare systems and performance, patient case-mix, resources available, composition of the teams and calling criteria, and strategies for education, audit and governance.

Hospital-wide physiological surveillance–A new approach to the early identification and management of the sick patient

Hospitalised patients, who suffer cardiac arrest and require unanticipated intensive care unit (ICU) admission or die, often exhibit premonitory abnormalities in vital signs. Sometimes, the deterioration is well documented, though there is little discernable evidence of intervention. In other cases, monitoring and recording of vital signs is infrequent or incomplete. Healthcare providers have introduced "track and trigger" systems to allow early identification of patients with physiological abnormalities, and rapid response teams to facilitate rapid and appropriate management. However, even when "track and trigger" systems are used, the recording of vital signs, patient chart completion and team activation remain sub-optimal. We have developed a system for collecting routine vital signs data at the bedside using standard personal digital assistants (PDA). The PDAs act as "thin clients" linked by a wireless local area network (W-LAN) to the hospital's intranet system, where raw and derived data are integrated with other patient information, e.g., name, hospital number, laboratory results. It is possible for raw physiology data, early warning scores (EWS), vital signs charts and oxygen therapy records to be made instantaneously available to any member of the hospital healthcare team via the W-LAN or hospital intranet. Early and direct contact with members of the patient's primary clinical team or rapid response team can be made through an automated alerting system, triggered by the EWS data. The ability to capture physiological data at the bedside, and to make these available to anyone with appropriate access rights at any time and in any place, should provide previously unattainable, clinical and administrative benefits. Analysis of the raw physiological data and patient outcomes will also make it possible to validate existing and future "track and trigger" systems.

Impact of patient monitoring on the diurnal pattern of medical emergency team activation*

OBJECTIVE

To study the impact of time of day, day of week and level of patient monitoring on medical emergency team (MET) activation.

DESIGN

Retrospective observational study of all MET and cardiac arrest events between October 2001 and March 2005.

SETTING

University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, a tertiary care teaching facility in the United States.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Cardiac arrest and MET event rate during the day (7 am to 6:59 pm) and night (7 pm to 6:59 am) overall; for weekdays and weekends; and from unmonitored, monitored, and intensive care units (ICUs). There were 605 cardiac arrest and 4,072 MET events. MET event rate was higher during the day than at night in unmonitored units (62% day vs. 38% night; p<.001) and monitored units (59% day vs. 41% night; p<.001) but not in ICUs (47% day vs. 53% night; p=.20). Unmonitored units had a greater daytime increase in MET event rate than monitored units (63% vs. 46%), whereas ICUs showed an 11% decline compared with night. The MET day vs. night difference was greater on weekdays (65% day vs. 35% night; p<.001) than on weekends (56% day vs. 44% night; p<.001). Cardiac arrest event rate showed no diurnal pattern in any unit setting but had a higher daytime event rate during weekdays (57% day vs. 43% night; p=.004).

CONCLUSIONS

More MET events take place during the day. MET events in unmonitored units have a greater diurnal variability than those from monitored units. ICUs show no diurnal variation in MET event rate. Our results suggest a significant variability in the hospital ability to consistently detect patients who meet MET activation criteria.

Medical emergency teams: deciphering clues to crises in hospitals

Cardiac arrest in hospitals is usually preceded by prolonged deterioration. If the deterioration is recognized and treated, often death can be prevented. Medical emergency teams (MET) are a mechanism to fill this need. The epidemiology of patient deteriorations is not well understood. Jones and colleagues provide data regarding the temporal pattern of METs. They describe a diurnal variation to crises that strongly suggests hospital processes may systematically ignore (and find) patient deterioration. Hospitals in the future must develop methodologies to find more reliably patients who are in crisis, and then respond to them swiftly and effectively to prevent unnecessary deaths.