301
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Centeno EGZ, Cimarosti H, Bithell A. 2D versus 3D human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cultures for neurodegenerative disease modelling. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:27. [PMID: 29788997 PMCID: PMC5964712 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0258-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), affect millions of people every year and so far, there are no therapeutic cures available. Even though animal and histological models have been of great aid in understanding disease mechanisms and identifying possible therapeutic strategies, in order to find disease-modifying solutions there is still a critical need for systems that can provide more predictive and physiologically relevant results. One possible avenue is the development of patient-derived models, e.g. by reprogramming patient somatic cells into human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), which can then be differentiated into any cell type for modelling. These systems contain key genetic information from the donors, and therefore have enormous potential as tools in the investigation of pathological mechanisms underlying disease phenotype, and progression, as well as in drug testing platforms. hiPSCs have been widely cultured in 2D systems, but in order to mimic human brain complexity, 3D models have been proposed as a more advanced alternative. This review will focus on the use of patient-derived hiPSCs to model AD, PD, HD and ALS. In brief, we will cover the available stem cells, types of 2D and 3D culture systems, existing models for neurodegenerative diseases, obstacles to model these diseases in vitro, and current perspectives in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduarda G Z Centeno
- Department of Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Campus Capão do Leão, Pelotas, RS, 96160-000, Brazil.,Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Trindade, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Helena Cimarosti
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Trindade, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil.
| | - Angela Bithell
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights Campus, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK.
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302
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Abstract
Microglia are a subset of tissue macrophages that constitute the major immune cell type of the central nervous system. These cells have long been known to change their morphology and functions in response to various neurological insults. Recently, a plethora of unbiased transcriptomics studies have revealed that across a broad spectrum of neurodegeneration-like disease models, microglia adopt a similar activation signature and perform similar functions. Despite these commonalities in response, the role of microglia has been described as both positive and negative in different murine disease models. In humans, genetic association studies have revealed strong connections between microglia genes and various neurodegenerative diseases, and mechanistic investigations of these mutations have added another layer of complexity. Here, we provide an overview of studies that have built a case for a common microglial response to neurodegeneration and discuss pathways that may be important to initiate and sustain this response; delineate the multifaceted functions of activated microglia spanning different diseases; and discuss insights from studying genes associated with disease in humans. We argue that strong evidence causally links activated microglia function to neurodegeneration and discuss what seems to be a conflict between mouse models and human genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilbur M Song
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States.
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303
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Schöneberg T, Meister J, Knierim AB, Schulz A. The G protein-coupled receptor GPR34 - The past 20 years of a grownup. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 189:71-88. [PMID: 29684466 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Research on GPR34, which was discovered in 1999 as an orphan G protein-coupled receptor of the rhodopsin-like class, disclosed its physiologic relevance only piece by piece. Being present in all recent vertebrate genomes analyzed so far it seems to improve the fitness of species although it is not essential for life and reproduction as GPR34-deficient mice demonstrate. However, closer inspection of macrophages and microglia, where it is mainly expressed, revealed its relevance in immune cell function. Recent data clearly demonstrate that GPR34 function is required to arrest microglia in the M0 homeostatic non-phagocytic phenotype. Herein, we summarize the current knowledge on its evolution, genomic and structural organization, physiology, pharmacology and relevance in human diseases including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer, which accumulated over the last 20 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Schöneberg
- Rudolf Schönheimer Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Jaroslawna Meister
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Alexander Bernd Knierim
- Rudolf Schönheimer Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Leipzig University Medical Center, IFB AdiposityDiseases, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angela Schulz
- Rudolf Schönheimer Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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304
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Brownjohn PW, Smith J, Solanki R, Lohmann E, Houlden H, Hardy J, Dietmann S, Livesey FJ. Functional Studies of Missense TREM2 Mutations in Human Stem Cell-Derived Microglia. Stem Cell Reports 2018; 10:1294-1307. [PMID: 29606617 PMCID: PMC5998752 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The derivation of microglia from human stem cells provides systems for understanding microglial biology and enables functional studies of disease-causing mutations. We describe a robust method for the derivation of human microglia from stem cells, which are phenotypically and functionally comparable with primary microglia. We used stem cell-derived microglia to study the consequences of missense mutations in the microglial-expressed protein triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), which are causal for frontotemporal dementia-like syndrome and Nasu-Hakola disease. We find that mutant TREM2 accumulates in its immature form, does not undergo typical proteolysis, and is not trafficked to the plasma membrane. However, in the absence of plasma membrane TREM2, microglia differentiate normally, respond to stimulation with lipopolysaccharide, and are phagocytically competent. These data indicate that dementia-associated TREM2 mutations have subtle effects on microglia biology, consistent with the adult onset of disease in individuals with these mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W Brownjohn
- The Gurdon Institute, ARUK Stem Cell Research Centre and Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
| | - James Smith
- The Gurdon Institute, ARUK Stem Cell Research Centre and Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
| | - Ravi Solanki
- The Gurdon Institute, ARUK Stem Cell Research Centre and Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
| | - Ebba Lohmann
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany; DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Henry Houlden
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - John Hardy
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Sabine Dietmann
- Wellcome Trust Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
| | - Frederick J Livesey
- The Gurdon Institute, ARUK Stem Cell Research Centre and Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.
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305
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Ghaffari LT, Starr A, Nelson AT, Sattler R. Representing Diversity in the Dish: Using Patient-Derived in Vitro Models to Recreate the Heterogeneity of Neurological Disease. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:56. [PMID: 29479303 PMCID: PMC5812426 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurological diseases, including dementias such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and fronto-temporal dementia (FTD) and degenerative motor neuron diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are responsible for an increasing fraction of worldwide fatalities. Researching these heterogeneous diseases requires models that endogenously express the full array of genetic and epigenetic factors which may influence disease development in both familial and sporadic patients. Here, we discuss the two primary methods of developing patient-derived neurons and glia to model neurodegenerative disease: reprogramming somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which are differentiated into neurons or glial cells, or directly converting (DC) somatic cells into neurons (iNeurons) or glial cells. Distinct differentiation techniques for both models result in a variety of neuronal and glial cell types, which have been successful in displaying unique hallmarks of a variety of neurological diseases. Yield, length of differentiation, ease of genetic manipulation, expression of cell-specific markers, and recapitulation of disease pathogenesis are presented as determining factors in how these methods may be used separately or together to ascertain mechanisms of disease and identify therapeutics for distinct patient populations or for specific individuals in personalized medicine projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Layla T Ghaffari
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Dignity Health-St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Alexander Starr
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Dignity Health-St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Andrew T Nelson
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Dignity Health-St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Rita Sattler
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Dignity Health-St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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306
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Sun AX, Ng HH, Tan EK. Translational potential of human brain organoids. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2018; 5:226-235. [PMID: 29468184 PMCID: PMC5817829 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent technology of 3D cultures of cellular aggregates derived from human stem cells have led to the emergence of tissue‐like structures of various organs including the brain. Brain organoids bear molecular and structural resemblance with developing human brains, and have been demonstrated to recapitulate several physiological and pathological functions of the brain. Here we provide an overview of the development of brain organoids for the clinical community, focusing on the current status of the field with an critical evaluation of its translational value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred X Sun
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology Genome Institute of Singapore 60 Biopolis
Street Singapore 138672 Singapore.,Department of Neurology National Neuroscience Institute 20 College Road Singapore 169856 Singapore
| | - Huck-Hui Ng
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology Genome Institute of Singapore 60 Biopolis
Street Singapore 138672 Singapore.,Graduate School for integrative Sciences and Engineering National University of Singapore Singapore 117456 Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- Department of Neurology National Neuroscience Institute 20 College Road Singapore 169856 Singapore
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307
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Mukherjee C, Hale C, Mukhopadhyay S. A Simple Multistep Protocol for Differentiating Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Functional Macrophages. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1784:13-28. [PMID: 29761384 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7837-3_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) provide an alternative new tool overcoming some of the limitations of existing models for human macrophages, such as human macrophage-like cell lines and primary monocyte-derived macrophages. A combination of different cytokines and growth factors can differentiate hiPSCs toward myeloid lineage. Here we describe a simple multistep protocol for differentiating hiPSCs into functional macrophages. This includes derivation of three germ-line containing embryoid bodies (EBs) from iPSCs, generation of myeloid precursors from EBs, and finally maturation of myeloid precursors into functional macrophages. Technical procedure and specific culture conditions associated with each of these steps are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrayana Mukherjee
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, The Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Christine Hale
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, The Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Subhankar Mukhopadhyay
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, The Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, Hinxton, UK.
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308
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Serio A, Patani R. Concise Review: The Cellular Conspiracy of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Stem Cells 2017; 36:293-303. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.2758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Serio
- Tissue Engineering and Biophotonics Division; Dental Institute, Kings College London; London United Kingdom
| | - Rickie Patani
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience; Institute of Neurology, University College London; London United Kingdom
- The Francis Crick Institute; London United Kingdom
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309
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Lannes N, Eppler E, Etemad S, Yotovski P, Filgueira L. Microglia at center stage: a comprehensive review about the versatile and unique residential macrophages of the central nervous system. Oncotarget 2017; 8:114393-114413. [PMID: 29371994 PMCID: PMC5768411 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia cells are the unique residential macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). They have a special origin, as they derive from the embryonic yolk sac and enter the developing CNS at a very early stage. They play an important role during CNS development and adult homeostasis. They have a major contribution to adult neurogenesis and neuroinflammation. Thus, they participate in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and contribute to aging. They play an important role in sustaining and breaking the blood-brain barrier. As innate immune cells, they contribute substantially to the immune response against infectious agents affecting the CNS. They play also a major role in the growth of tumours of the CNS. Microglia are consequently the key cell population linking the nervous and the immune system. This review covers all different aspects of microglia biology and pathology in a comprehensive way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lannes
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth Eppler
- Pestalozzistrasse Zo, Department of BioMedicine, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Samar Etemad
- Building 71/218 RBWH Herston, Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, QLD 4029 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Peter Yotovski
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Luis Filgueira
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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310
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Abstract
Microglia and non-parenchymal macrophages in the brain are mononuclear phagocytes that are increasingly recognized to be essential players in the development, homeostasis and diseases of the central nervous system. With the availability of new genetic, molecular and pharmacological tools, considerable advances have been made towards our understanding of the embryonic origins, developmental programmes and functions of these cells. These exciting discoveries, some of which are still controversial, also raise many new questions, which makes brain macrophage biology a fast-growing field at the intersection of neuroscience and immunology. Here, we review the current knowledge of how and where brain macrophages are generated, with a focus on parenchymal microglia. We also discuss their normal functions during development and homeostasis, the disturbance of which may lead to various neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases.
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311
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Thion MS, Garel S. On place and time: microglia in embryonic and perinatal brain development. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2017; 47:121-130. [PMID: 29080445 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the brain-resident macrophages, play key roles in regulating synapse density and homeostasis in the postnatal and adult brain. However, microglia enter the brain during embryogenesis and recent studies have revealed additional early functions of these immune cells in prenatal and perinatal cerebral development. Such findings are of importance since prenatal inflammation and microglia dysfunction have been associated with several neurodevelopmental disorders. This review provides a selective overview of the early roles of microglia, their link with a specific spatiotemporal distribution and how they can be modulated by intrinsic factors or environmental signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgane Sonia Thion
- Institut de biologie de l'Ecole normale supérieure (IBENS), Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Sonia Garel
- Institut de biologie de l'Ecole normale supérieure (IBENS), Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005 Paris, France.
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312
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Zhang H, Reilly MP. Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Macrophages for Unraveling Human Macrophage Biology. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2017; 37:2000-2006. [PMID: 28982665 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.117.309195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite a substantial appreciation for the critical role of macrophages in cardiometabolic diseases, understanding of human macrophage biology has been hampered by the lack of reliable and scalable models for cellular and genetic studies. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived macrophages (IPSDM), as an unlimited source of subject genotype-specific cells, will undoubtedly play an important role in advancing our understanding of the role of macrophages in human diseases. In this review, we summarize current literature in the differentiation and characterization of IPSDM at phenotypic, functional, and transcriptomic levels. We emphasize the progress in differentiating iPSC to tissue resident macrophages, and in understanding the ontogeny of in vitro differentiated IPSDM that resembles primitive hematopoiesis, rather than adult definitive hematopoiesis. We review the application of IPSDM in modeling both Mendelian genetic disorders and host-pathogen interactions. Finally, we highlighted the potential areas of research using IPSDM in functional validation of coronary artery disease loci in genome-wide association studies, functional genomic analyses, drug testing, and cell therapeutics in cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanrui Zhang
- From the Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine (H.Z., M.P.R.) and Irving Institute for Clinical and Translational Research (M.P.R.), Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.
| | - Muredach P Reilly
- From the Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine (H.Z., M.P.R.) and Irving Institute for Clinical and Translational Research (M.P.R.), Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY.
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313
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Haenseler W, Zambon F, Lee H, Vowles J, Rinaldi F, Duggal G, Houlden H, Gwinn K, Wray S, Luk KC, Wade-Martins R, James WS, Cowley SA. Excess α-synuclein compromises phagocytosis in iPSC-derived macrophages. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9003. [PMID: 28827786 PMCID: PMC5567139 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09362-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the pathogenic role of α-synuclein (αS) in Parkinson's Disease, we have generated induced Pluripotent Stem Cell lines from early onset Parkinson's Disease patients with SNCA A53T and SNCA Triplication mutations, and in this study have differentiated them to PSC-macrophages (pMac), which recapitulate many features of their brain-resident cousins, microglia. We show that SNCA Triplication pMac, but not A53T pMac, have significantly increased intracellular αS versus controls and release significantly more αS to the medium. SNCA Triplication pMac, but not A53T pMac, show significantly reduced phagocytosis capability and this can be phenocopied by adding monomeric αS to the cell culture medium of control pMac. Fibrillar αS is taken up by pMac by actin-rearrangement-dependent pathways, and monomeric αS by actin-independent pathways. Finally, pMac degrade αS and this can be arrested by blocking lysosomal and proteasomal pathways. Together, these results show that macrophages are capable of clearing αS, but that high levels of exogenous or endogenous αS compromise this ability, likely a vicious cycle scenario faced by microglia in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walther Haenseler
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK.
| | - Federico Zambon
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Heyne Lee
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Jane Vowles
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Federica Rinaldi
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Galbha Duggal
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Henry Houlden
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Katrina Gwinn
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Selina Wray
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Kelvin C Luk
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - William S James
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Sally A Cowley
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK.
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK.
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314
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Temple S. Cultivating a Robust Stem Cell Field. Stem Cell Reports 2017; 8:1455-1456. [PMID: 28591646 PMCID: PMC5470339 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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