Clinical experience with intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) in prostate cancer

Clinical use of intensity-modulated radiotherapy: part II

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is a novel conformal radiotherapy technique which is gaining increasingly widespread use. This second clinical article aims to summarize the published data pertaining to prostate cancer, pelvic irradiation, gynaecological and breast cancer. Prostate cancer patients represent the largest group treated to date. The main indication has been radiation dose escalation within acceptable normal tissue late toxicity. Phase II data are promising, but no randomized clinical trial data are available to support its use. Pelvic IMRT aims to deliver radical radiation doses to pelvic lymph nodes while sparing the bowel and bladder. Indications for breast IMRT data are reviewed, and current data presented. Further data from randomized trials are required to confirm the anticipated benefits of IMRT in patients.

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy: Not a dry eye in the house

Inverse planned intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) has been applied to patients in a conformal fashion in order to avoid the lacrimal gland. In the present study, we report a patient in which a potential planned dose of 63 Gy to the lacrimal gland for a conventional plan was reduced to 12 Gy to the lacrimal gland for the IMRT plan. Dose objective inverse planning was provided using a Pinnacle treatment planning computer and treatment was delivered using a Varian dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC) on a Varian linear accelerator. Because multiple MLC segments are used to deliver the modulated treatment, conventional dose checks by manual calculation are not practical. To aid in an alternative dosimetric verification process, the Pinnacle planning computer has two unique dose tools, which provide axial and beams eye view doses on user-specified check phantoms. The combined field axial dose tool matched our ion chamber dose checks within +/- 2.4% at the isocentre. The individual beams eye view dose tool matched film dose maps within +/- 3% in the umbra.

Impact of volume and location of irradiated rectum wall on rectal blood loss after radiotherapy of prostate cancer

PURPOSE

To identify dose-volume parameters related to late rectal bleeding after radiotherapy for prostate cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinical complication data from a randomized trial were collected and linked to the individual dose-volume data. In this trial, patients with prostate cancer were treated with either conventional (with rectangular fields) or three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy to a dose of 66 Gy. Patient complaints, including rectal blood loss, were collected for 199 patients, using questionnaires. Absolute and relative dose-volume histograms (DVHs) of the rectal wall (with and without the anal region) were calculated with and without rectal filling. A proportional hazard regression (PHR) model was applied to estimate the probability of any rectal blood loss within 3 years, as a function of several DVH parameters. In a multivariable analysis, dose-volume parameters were tested together with patient- and treatment-related parameters (age, smoking, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, tumor stage, neo-adjuvant androgen deprivation, conformal vs. conventional and rectal bleeding during treatment).

RESULTS

The estimated incidence of any and moderate/severe rectal bleeding at 3 years was 33% and 8%, respectively. Differences between the conventional and conformal technique were small and not significant. The analysis of relative DVHs of the rectal wall (with and without the anal region), showed significant (p < 0.01) relations between the irradiated volume and the probability of rectal blood loss within 3 years for dose levels between 25 Gy and 60 Gy. This relationship was shown in subgroups defined by dose-volume cutoff points as well as in the PHR model, in which a continuously rising risk was seen with increasing volumes. For absolute DVHs and DVHs of the rectum including filling, less or no significant results were observed. The most significant volume-effect relation (p = 0.002) was found at 60 Gy for the rectum wall excluding the anal region. The probability of rectal bleeding increased from 10% to 63% when the irradiated rectum volume at 60 Gy increased from 25% to 100%. Other factors. including age, smoking, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, tumor stage, neo-adjuvant androgen deprivation, conformal vs. conventional, rectal bleeding during treatment, rectum length. and whole rectum volume. did not have a significant effect in the multivariable analysis. When controlling for the volumes at 60 Gy, the volumes at lower dose levels (25-55 Gy) were no longer significant (p = 0.5).

CONCLUSIONS

For any rectal bleeding within 3 years, an overall incidence of 33% was observed for patients treated to 66 Gy. For this endpoint, a volume-effect relation was found for DVH parameters of the relative rectal wall volume. This relationship appeared to be most significant for the rectum without the anal region and for the higher dose levels (50-60 Gy).

Sparing of the penile bulb and proximal penile structures with intensity-modulated radiation therapy for prostate cancer

Quality of life is an important consideration in the treatment of early prostate cancer. Laboratory and clinical data suggest that higher radiation doses delivered to the bulb of penis and proximal penile structures correlates with higher rates of post-radiation impotence. The goal of this investigation was to determine if intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) spares dose to the penile bulb while maintaining coverage of the prostate. 10 consecutive patients with clinically organ confined prostate cancer were planned with 3D conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT) or IMRT to give a dose of 74 Gy without specifically constraining the plans to spare the penile bulb. All 10 patients were ultimately treated with IMRT. Dose-volume histograms were evaluated and the doses to prostate, rectum, bladder and penile bulb were compared. IMRT reduced the mean penile bulb doses compared with 3D-CRT (33.2 Gy vs 48.9 Gy, p<0.001), the percentage of penile bulb receiving over 40 Gy (37.7% vs 67.2%, p<0.001) and the dose received by >95% of penile bulb (5.3 Gy vs 11.7 Gy, p=0.003). Maximum penile bulb doses were higher with IMRT (81.2 Gy vs 73.1 Gy, p<0.001) although the volume of this high dose region was small. Both methods resulted in similar coverage of the prostate. The volume of rectum receiving 70 Gy was significantly reduced with IMRT (18.4% vs 21.9%, p=0.003) but the volumes of bladder receiving 70 Gy were similar (p=0.3). IMRT may potentially reduce long term sexual morbidity by reducing the dose to the majority of the penile bulb.

Practical experience with intensity-modulated radiotherapy

At the Ipswich Hospital implementation of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) commenced in February 2001 based on an established 3D conformal radiotherapy (3D CRT) service. This paper describes our experiences as we commissioned a fully-integrated IMRT planning and delivery system, and established IMRT within the department. Commissioning measurements incorporated a series of tests to ensure the integrity of the system and form the basis of routine quality assurance (QA) procedures. Potential IMRT patients proceeded through pre-treatment in the same way as standard 3D CRT patients. All were dual-planned for IMRT and 3D CRT with no change in established fractionation regimen, and the resulting plans evaluated. IMRT was selected for treatment where it offered a significant advantage by improving dose homogeneity and conformity within the target volume and/or reducing dose to organs at risk. Extensive pre-treatment verification was undertaken on all plans to check dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC) delivery and monitor unit calculation. Patients were monitored throughout treatment with amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging to ensure reproducibility of set-up. Between June 2001 and June 2003 21 patients were treated with inverse-planned IMRT to sites within the head and neck and lung. IMRT has enabled precise delivery to irregular shaped target volumes, avoiding organs at risk and enabling doses to be increased to radical levels in some cases. Additionally over 200 CT scanned breast patients were treated with forward-planned electronic compensation delivered by dynamic MLC, improving dose homogeneity within the breast volume compared with standard wedged plans. The IMRT programme will continue at the Ipswich Hospital with the introduction of further clinical sites and adoption of more aggressive fractionation regimens within the confines of multicentre clinical trials.

Australian prostate-specific antigen outcome and toxicity following radiation therapy for localized prostate cancer

The objective of the present study was to examine prostate-specific antigen relapse free survival (PSA-RFS) and morbidity following 'conventional' radical radiation therapy for prostate cancer in two Australian regional treatment services. Four hundred and eighty men with clinically localized prostate cancer were treated between 1993 and 1997 at Liverpool and Westmead Hospitals using a standardized 4-field, CT-planned radiotherapy technique. Principal endpoints were PSA-RFS (American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology guidelines definition) and late rectal and urinary morbidity (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group/European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer criteria). The median follow up of patients from the end of RT was 55 months. Prospectively, they were divided into three prognostic categories: (i) high risk T3 or 4 and/or PSA > 20 ng/mL and/or Gleason score 8-10 (40% of cohort); (ii) intermediate risk T1 or 2 and PSA 10-20 ng/mL and/or Gleason score 7 (33% of cohort); and (iii) low risk T1 or 2 and PSA < 10 ng/mL and Gleason score < 6 (27% of cohort). The 5-year actuarial PSA-RFS was 53% for the whole patient group. The 4-year rates were 32, 56 and 75% for high, intermediate and low risk groups, respectively. On multivariate analysis, T-stage, Gleason score, pre-RT-PSA were strong independent predictors of PSA-defined outcome. Late (grade 2) rectal and urinary morbidity occurred at some point in time in the post-RT period in 8.0 and 5.8% of patients, respectively. These results confirm that low Gleason score, low T stage, presenting PSA < 10 ng/mL and nadir < 1 ng/mL remain the strongest predictors of a good outcome. Long-term toxicity was very acceptable. However, further improvement in outcome is desirable, and with the adoption of new technology allowing escalation of radiotherapy doses such an expectation might be achieved.

Hypofractionated conformal radiotherapy in carcinoma of the prostate: five-year outcome analysis

PURPOSE

Recent publications have indicated that the alpha/beta ratios for carcinoma of the prostate are much lower than had originally been thought, suggesting that prostate cancer may be highly sensitive to fraction size. We have reviewed our unique experience of the use of 3.13 Gy fractions in a large cohort of men treated homogeneously in a single institute.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The outcome for 705 men with T1-T4, N0, M0 prostate cancer who received conformal radiotherapy between 1995 and 1998 at this center was analyzed. No patient received hormonal manipulation. Mean age was 68 years (range: 49-84 years). Median pretreatment PSA was 13 ng/mL (range: 0.6-270 ng/mL). Disease characteristics were as follows: Stage T1, 125 (18%); T2, 365 (52%); T3/4, 215 (30%); Gleason 2-6, 463 (66%); Gleason 7-10, 242 (34%); pretreatment PSA < or =10 ng/mL, 291 (41%); 10 to < or =20, 228 (32%); >20, 186 (27%). Median follow-up was 48 months (range: 1-82 months). Biochemical-free survival (bNED) was defined by the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology consensus definition. Radiotherapy was delivered to a planning target volume (prostate plus all/base of the seminal vesicles dependent on risk criteria with a 1-cm margin) with a 4-field conformal technique to a dose of 50 Gy in 16 daily fractions over 22 days.

RESULTS

The 5-year bNED survival was significantly associated (p < 0.001) with pretreatment PSA, stage, and Gleason score. Five-year bNED rates with respect to pretreatment characteristics were as follows: 73% (PSA < or =10), 52% (>10-20), 35% (>20), 64% (Stage T1/2), 38% (T3/4), 61% (Gleason score 2-6), and 46% (Gleason > or =7). When patients were grouped into good (Stage T1/2, PSA < or =10 ng/mL, and Gleason score <7) (n = 181), intermediate (1 raised value) (n = 247), or poor (2 or more raised values) (n = 277) prognostic groups, the bNED was, respectively, 82%, 56%, and 39%. Radiation Therapy Oncology Group Grade > or =2 bowel toxicity was 5% and bladder 9%.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that the delivery of a relatively low total dose using a hypofractionated regime results in similar tumor control and normal-tissue toxicity to 65-70 Gy delivered in 1.8-2 Gy fractions. These data suggest that this is an acceptable regime for good-prognosis patients. However, because of the evidence for a dose effect at doses above 70 Gy with "conventional fractionation," we are now treating intermediate- and poor-risk patients within a hypofractionated dose escalation trial to 60 Gy in 20 fractions using intensity- modulated radiotherapy.

Segmental IMRT for oropharyngeal cancer in a clinical setting

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To develop a segmental intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) technique for the treatment of oropharyngeal cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eight patients previously treated for oropharyngeal cancer were replanned with segmental IMRT. The dose distribution was optimized using beam geometries consisting of 3, 5, 7 and 9 equiangular beams. The optimization procedure resulted in a theoretical fluence for each beam. In order to vary the number of segments, the optimized fluence was divided into four different equidistant levels. The final dose distribution was calculated using clinically deliverable segments obtained from optimized fluence.

RESULTS

For our segmental IMRT technique the dose homogeneity within the target volumes improved when the total number of segments increased and reached a saturation level at approximately 150 segments. Seven beams were sufficient to achieve the saturation level for dose homogeneity. The mean dose to the parotid glands depended on the beam geometry and tumor location and did not depend on the number of segments. On average the mean dose to the contralateral parotid gland was 35.7 Gy (27.1-39.9 Gy) for all seven beam plans.

CONCLUSIONS

Seven beams are sufficient to achieve an acceptable dose homogeneity within the target volumes and significant parotid sparing. These results will be used to introduce IMRT in routine clinical practice.

Reduction of dose delivered to the rectum and bulb of the penis using MRI delineation for radiotherapy of the prostate

PURPOSE

The prostate volume delineated on MRI is smaller than on CT. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of MRI- vs. CT-based prostate delineation using multiple observers on the dose to the target and organs at risk during external beam radiotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CT and MRI scans of the pelvic region were made of 18 patients and matched three-dimensionally on the bony anatomy. Three observers delineated the prostate using both modalities. A fourth observer delineated the rectal wall and the bulb of the penis. The planning treatment volume (PTV) was generated from the delineated prostates with a margin of 10 mm in three-dimensions. A three-field treatment plan with a prescribed dose of 78 Gy to the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements point was automatically generated from each PTV. Dose-volume histograms were calculated of all PTVs, rectal walls, and penile bulbs. The equivalent uniform dose was calculated for the rectal wall using a volume exponent (n = 0.12).

RESULTS

The equivalent uniform dose of the CT rectal wall in plans based on the CT-delineated prostate was, on average, 5.1 Gy (SEM 0.5) greater than in the plans based on the MRI-delineated prostate. For the MRI rectal wall, this difference was 3.6 Gy (SEM 0.4). Allowing for the same equivalent uniform dose to the CT rectal wall, the prescribed dose to the PTV could be raised from 78 to 85 Gy when using the MRI-delineated prostate for treatment planning. The mean dose to the bulb of the penis was 11.6 Gy (SEM 1.8) lower for plans based on the MRI-delineated prostate. The mean coverage (volume of the PTV receiving > or =95% of the prescribed dose) was 99.9% for both modalities. The interobserver coverage (coverage of the PTV by a treatment plan designed for the PTV delineated by another observer in the same modality) was 97% for both modalities. The MRI rectum was significantly more ventrally localized than the CT rectum, probably because of the rounded tabletop and no knee support on the MRI scanner.

CONCLUSIONS

The dose delivered to the rectal wall and bulb of the penis is significantly reduced with treatment plans based on the MRI-delineated prostate compared with the CT-delineated prostate, allowing a dose escalation of 2.0-7.0 Gy for the same rectal wall dose. The interobserver coverage was the same for CT and MRI delineation of the prostate. A statistically significant difference in position between the CT- and MRI-delineated rectum was observed, probably owing to a different tabletop and use of knee support.

Improved Biochemical Disease-Free Survival of Men Younger Than 60 Years With Prostate Cancer Treated With High Dose Conformal External Beam Radiotherapy

PURPOSE

We report the long-term prostate specific antigen relapse-free survival rates and predictors of biochemical outcome for patients 60 years or younger with prostate cancer treated with high dose conformal external beam radiotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 740 patients with prostate cancer treated with 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy or intensity modulated external beam radiotherapy. Patients who also received androgen deprivation therapy were excluded from this analysis. Median radiation dose was 75.6 Gy and median followup was 88 months with a minimum followup of 24 months. Median followup for patients 60 years or younger in this report was 54 months (range 24 to 132). Biochemical failure was defined according to the criteria recommended by the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology Consensus Panel.

RESULTS

Biochemical failure developed in 20 (21%) of the 96 men 60 years or younger, which was similar to the 22% failure rate observed in 644 patients older than 60. The 5 and 7-year biochemical disease-free survival rates were 82% and 79% in younger men, and 79% and 78% in older men, respectively (p = 0.48). For younger patients who received 81 Gy or greater, the 7-year prostate specific antigen relapse-free survival rates for favorable, intermediate and unfavorable risk patients were 96%, 87% and 50%, respectively. Multivariate analysis revealed that among patients 60 years or younger the most important predictor of biochemical relapse was radiation doses less than 75.6 Gy followed by Gleason score greater than 7.

CONCLUSIONS

Men with prostate cancer 60 years or younger treated with high dose radiotherapy have an excellent biochemical outcome and fare as well as older patients. The use of conventional dose levels in patients 60 years or younger was associated with an 8-fold increase in the biochemical relapse rate and these doses should not be considered appropriate for the treatment of localized prostate cancer.

Conventional 3D conformal versus intensity-modulated radiotherapy for the adjuvant treatment of gynecologic malignancies: a comparative dosimetric study of dose–volume histograms☆

OBJECTIVE

The goals of this study were to evaluate the feasibility of pelvic intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) in the adjuvant treatment of gynecologic malignancies and to compare the dose-volume histograms (DVHs) and determine the potential impact on acute and long-term toxicity based on the dose to target and nontarget tissues for both planning techniques.

METHODS

Ten consecutive patients referred for adjuvant radiotherapy for gynecologic malignancies at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Magee-Womens Hospital were selected for CT-based treatment planning using the ADAC 3D version 4.2g and the NOMOS Corvus IMRT version 4.0. Normal tissues and critical structures were contoured on axial CT slices by both systems in conjunction with a gynecologic radiologist. These regions included internal, external, and common iliac nodal groups, rectum, upper 4 cm of vagina, bladder, and small bowel. Conventional treatment planning included 3D four-field box using 18-MV photons designed to treat a volume from the L(5)/S(1) border superiorly to the bottom of the ischial tuberosity on the AP/PA field and shaped blocks on the lateral fields to minimize the dose to the rectum and small bowel. A seven-field technique using 6-MV photons was used for IMRT. Restraints on small bowel for IMRT were set at 23.0 Gy +/- 5% and 35.0 Gy+/- 5% for the rectum and 37.5 Gy +/- 5% for the bladder while simultaneously delivering full dose (45.0 Gy) to the intrapelvic nodal groups in 1.8-Gy daily fractions. The dose-volume histograms where then compared for both treatment delivery systems.

RESULTS

The volume of each organ of interest (small bowel, bladder, and rectum) receiving doses in excess of 30 Gy was compared in the 3D and IMRT treatment plans. The mean volume of small bowel receiving doses in excess of 30 Gy was reduced by 52% with IMRT compared with 3D. A similar advantage was noted for the rectum (66% reduction) and the bladder (36% reduction). The nodal regions at risk and the upper vagina all received the prescribed dose of 45.0 Gy.

CONCLUSIONS

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy appears to offer several advantages over conventional 3D radiotherapy (3D CRT) planning for adjuvant radiotherapy for gynecologic malignancies. These include a significant reduction in treatment volume for bladder, rectum, and small bowel. It is anticipated that this reduction in volume of normal tissue irradiated would translate into overall reduction in acute and potentially late treatment-related toxicity. Prospective trials are necessary to better evaluate the advantages in a larger group of patients.

Contemporary management of prostate cancer: a practice survey of Ontario genitourinary radiation oncologists

OBJECTIVE

To survey radiation oncology practice in the utilization of hormonal and radiation therapy in the primary, adjuvant and salvage treatment of localized prostate cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Genitourinary radiation oncologists practicing in Ontario were invited to participate in a practice survey examining staging, hormonal and radiation management, and radiation technique for a variety of common clinical scenarios. Background demographic information was collected on all respondents. The survey consisted of three cases relating to the hormonal/radiation management of low-, intermediate-, and high-risk prostate cancer as well as two adjuvant and one salvage post-prostatectomy scenarios. The survey response rate was 70% (26/37).

RESULTS

Clinicians were more likely to utilize laboratory and imaging studies for staging as the risk categorization increased. Low-risk disease was managed with radiation alone in 26/26 (70 Gy in 65%, 74-79.8 Gy in 35%). Intermediate-risk disease was managed with radiation (70 Gy in 46%, 74-79.8 Gy in 54%) with neoadjuvant hormones in 58%. All respondents managed high-risk disease with adjuvant hormones in addition to radiation therapy (70-71 Gy in 85%, and 76 Gy in 15%). In the pT3a, margin negative (PSA undetectable) scenario, most individuals would not recommend adjuvant radiation (73%). If margins were positive, 30% would still not recommend adjuvant radiation. In the salvage scenario (slowly rising PSA 4 years post-prostatectomy for pT2a close margin disease), all respondents would manage with radiation therapy. Hormones were not routinely recommended in the initial management of the adjuvant and salvage scenarios. Radiation doses utilized for both adjuvant and salvage treatment ranged from 60-70 Gy (median 66 Gy).

CONCLUSIONS

General agreement exists for the management of low- and high-risk disease and in the post-prostatectomy salvage setting. Use of dose-escalation and neoadjuvant hormones in the intermediate-risk setting and use of post-prostatectomy adjuvant radiation in the pT3a scenarios varied among radiation oncologists. Current clinical practice in localized prostate cancer reflects the evolving information in the published medical literature.

[Curative radiotherapy of localized prostate cancer. Treatment methods and results]

Radiation oncology has undergone rapid technical development during the last few years. The further development of treatment planning systems and treatment machines had a major impact on the improvement of radiation therapy results in prostate cancer. This paper presents different treatment modalities and results. Currently available are three-dimensional conformal radiation, intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), high dose rate brachytherapy, and low dose rate brachytherapy (seed implantation). All modalities offer the possibility for dose escalation, which is essential for curative treatment. Dose escalation using these techniques makes it possible to reduce the dose for the surrounding organs at risk. Three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy can be delivered with doses up to 78 Gy. The biochemical control rate is up to 90% depending on the risk factors T stage, initial PSA, and Gleason score. The incidence of late side effects is <10%. IMRT is a newer modality for percutaneous radiotherapy. By individual dose modification in the treatment fields, doses >80 Gy can be delivered in small treatment volumes. Treatment has to be highly precise to avoid dose peaks in the organs at risk, i.e., rectum and bladder. The preliminary data for remission and toxicity rates are promising, but it is too early for final conclusions. For cases with high-risk factors such as PSA >10 ng/ml, Gleason score >6, and stage T3, percutaneous radiation can be combined with neoadjuvant or adjuvant hormonal treatment. Randomized trials showed an improvement of the results in favor of combined treatment. HDR brachytherapy in combination with external radiation is a good option for dose escalation in patients with locally advanced tumors and/or other high-risk factors. The biochemical control rates are between 60 and 84%, late effects occur in less than 10%. Seed implantation (LDR brachytherapy) as sole treatment is indicated for prognostically favorable situations (PSA <10 ng/ml, Gleason score < or =6, and T1c or T2a tumors). The biochemical control rates are between 80 and 90%. Toxicity consists of urine retention and proctitis, occurring in 10-20% of the patients.

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy for Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is among the most common solid malignancies. A number of treatment alternatives exist for localized prostate cancer, including observation, prostatectomy, brachytherapy, and external-beam radiation therapy (EBRT). External-beam radiation therapy has changed dramatically during the past several years. Older techniques paved the way for 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (CRT), which in turn facilitated the introduction of intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT). The prostate has served as a model disease site for the implementation of IMRT. As indicated by a growing body of experience, IMRT for prostate cancer represents a major technologic and clinical advance for radiation therapy. In this article, a review is provided of the evolution of EBRT leading to IMRT, the unique features making the prostate an ideal disease site for employing IMRT, the details of the clinical implementation of prostate IMRT and supporting technologic advancements, and the currently reported clinical outcomes of IMRT in prostate cancer. In addition, future directions of prostate IMRT, both technologic and clinical, are discussed.

Permanent Prostate Brachytherapy in Men with Clinically Localised Prostate Cancer

Permanent prostate brachytherapy techniques are associated with excellent biochemical control for patients with localised prostate cancer. Ten-year data show that permanent prostate brachytherapy is compatible with external beam irradiation or radical prostatectomy. However, treatment protocols and techniques for prostate brachytherapy vary between centres and there is little conformity of treatment protocols. The selection of patients for monotherapy or combined external beam irradiation and brachytherapy is controversial. The role of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation also remains unanswered in patients with localised prostate cancer. In addition, post-implant dosimetry may in fact be more significant for predicting outcome than the addition of adjuvant therapies, and should be a requirement when performing prostate brachytherapy. Data now seem to support specific computed tomography (CT)-based criteria to evaluate implant quality and delivered dose to the prostate. Unfortunately, prostate oedema and poor imaging techniques are limiting factors for evaluating implant dosimetry. Treatment planning techniques that use new treatment planning computers may assist in improving the implant procedure and dosimetry and are now available.

Guidance document on delivery, treatment planning, and clinical implementation of IMRT: report of the IMRT Subcommittee of the AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) represents one of the most significant technical advances in radiation therapy since the advent of the medical linear accelerator. It allows the clinical implementation of highly conformal nonconvex dose distributions. This complex but promising treatment modality is rapidly proliferating in both academic and community practice settings. However, these advances do not come without a risk. IMRT is not just an add-on to the current radiation therapy process; it represents a new paradigm that requires the knowledge of multimodality imaging, setup uncertainties and internal organ motion, tumor control probabilities, normal tissue complication probabilities, three-dimensional (3-D) dose calculation and optimization, and dynamic beam delivery of nonuniform beam intensities. Therefore, the purpose of this report is to guide and assist the clinical medical physicist in developing and implementing a viable and safe IMRT program. The scope of the IMRT program is quite broad, encompassing multileaf-collimator-based IMRT delivery systems, goal-based inverse treatment planning, and clinical implementation of IMRT with patient-specific quality assurance. This report, while not prescribing specific procedures, provides the framework and guidance to allow clinical radiation oncology physicists to make judicious decisions in implementing a safe and efficient IMRT program in their clinics.

Reduction in acute morbidity using hypofractionated intensity-modulated radiation therapy assisted with a fluoroscopic real-time tumor-tracking system for prostate cancer: preliminary results of a phase I/II study

PURPOSE

The positioning of the prostate is improved with the use of the fluoroscopic real-time tumor-tracking radiation therapy system for prostate cancer. The acute radiation reaction and preliminary tumor response of prostate cancer to hypofractionated intensity-modulated radiation therapy assisted with real-time tumor-tracking radiation therapy were investigated in this study.

METHODS

Patients were classified into prognostic risk groups on the basis of the presence of the pretreatment prostate-specific antigen, clinical stage, and histologic differentiation. Neoadjuvant hormonal therapy was administered to patients in the high-risk group for 6 months before radiation therapy commenced. The intensity-modulated radiation therapy employed a segmental multileaf collimator, which generated a field made up of two or more shaped subfields using forward planning. Real-time tumor-tracking radiation therapy was used for the precise positioning of the prostate to minimize geometric uncertainties, while the dose was escalated in increments of 5 Gy from 65 Gy using a daily dose of 2.5 Gy (65 Gy/2.5 Gy), following the dose-escalation rules. Acute and late gastrointestinal and genitourinary morbidities due to radiation therapy were scored according to the toxicity criteria of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group/European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer.

RESULTS

Thirty-one patients were enrolled in this study between 1998 and 2001. Eighteen patients were classified as being members of the high-risk group. Total dose was escalated, with 65 Gy/2.5 Gy being administered to 12 patients and 70 Gy/2.5 Gy to 19 patients. The median follow-up period was 37 months (range, 30-43 months), and 19 months (range, 10-27 months), for the 65-Gy and 70-Gy arms, respectively. Patients experienced no acute toxicity and grade 1 late gastrointestinal toxicity (8.3%) in the 65-Gy/2.5-Gy arm. Patients in the 70-Gy/2.5-Gy arm experienced grade 1 acute gastrointestinal toxicity (5.3%) and grade 1 and 2 acute genitourinarytoxicities (15.8%). No patients experienced dose-limiting toxicity (defined as a grade 3 or higher acute toxicity) or a grade 2 or higher late complication in this study period. One and two prostate-specific antigen relapses were observed in the 65-Gy and 70-Gy arms, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Up to 70 Gy/2.5 Gy, equivalent to 80 Gy with a daily dose of 2.0 Gy, assuming alpha/beta ratio of 1.5, intensity-modulated radiation therapy assisted with real-time tumor-tracking radiation therapy was administered safely with a reasonable biochemical control rate. A further dose-escalation study using this system is justifiable.

[Study of theoretical cases of intensity-modulated beams with step-and-shoot technique]

To initiate Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) in our department, theoretical cases were used as a training, to define methods of measurements and to verify the software by comparing results of calculation and measurement on a PMMA phantom. Irradiation was performed with 6 and 25 MV X-rays from a linear accelerator. For measurements, films and ionization chambers have been chosen. The comparison between calculations and measurements shows some discrepancies at the level of junctions and also in areas of low doses especially when many segments were used. These theoretical cases provide a first step on the way towards treatments with intensity modulation.

Clinical evaluation of dynamic arc conformal radiotherapy for paraaortic lymph node metastasis

PURPOSE

This study was performed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of dynamic arc conformal radiotherapy, a simple intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), for the treatment of paraaortic lymph node metastases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-nine patients with paraaortic lymph node metastases were enrolled in this study. The total planned dose was 55-60 Gy. A computed tomography (CT) simulator was used in the treatment planning.

RESULTS

The total radiation dose delivered was 50-63.4 Gy (median 60 Gy). Sixteen of 29 patients showed local tumor shrinkage on CT, and the 2 year in-field recurrence free survival rate was 58%. Acute Grade 1 and Grade 2 gastrointestinal disorders occurred in 31% and 17%, respectively, and acute Grade 2 liver dysfunction occurred in 7%. As a late complication, Grade 1 and Grade 2 liver dysfunction occurred in six patients (21%) and five patients (17%), respectively. There was no renal dysfunction or myelopathy detected.

CONCLUSION

Dynamic arc conformal radiotherapy, a simple IMRT, is a safe and effective treatment method for paraaortic lymph node metastasis.

Early prostate cancer: clinical decision-making

Prostate cancer is one of the most common malignant diseases for which health-care intervention is sought worldwide, and in many developed countries it is the most common. Some patients with early-stage prostate cancer, especially those who are elderly and have comorbidities, can be observed without treatment. Surgery (radical prostatectomy) and radiotherapy (external-beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, or both) are the most widely accepted curative options for patients with early-stage disease who need intervention. All these local treatments have been refined, resulting in comparable cure rates; however, they all have different side-effect profiles. Adjuvant systemic treatments (hormones or chemotherapy), which are effective for advanced-stage disease, might have a greater role in early-stage disease. Selecting the best option for individuals from the available options is challenging--the decision on whether and how to treat is based on many disease and patient factors. Here, we review the major treatment options, discuss their relative advantages and disadvantages, and provide a general approach to management of patients with early-stage prostate cancer.

Development of a semi-automatic alignment tool for accelerated localization of the prostate

PURPOSE

Delivering high dose to prostate with external beam radiation has been shown to improve local tumor control. However, it has to be carefully performed to avoid partial target miss and delivering excessive dose to surrounding normal tissues. One way to achieve safe dose escalation is to precisely localize prostate immediately before daily treatment. Therefore, the radiation can be accurately delivered to the target. Once the prostate position is determined with high confidence, planning target volume (PTV) safety margin might be reduced for further reduction of rectal toxicity. A rapid computed tomography (CT)-based online prostate localization method is presented for this purpose.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Immediately before each treatment session, the patient is immobilized and undergoes a CT scan in the treatment position using a CT scanner situated in the treatment room. At the CT console, posterior, anterior, left, and right extents of the prostate are manually identified on each axial slice. The translational prostate displacements relative to the planned position are estimated by simultaneously fitting these identified extents from this CT scan to a template created from the finely sliced planning CT scan. A total of 106 serial CT scans from 8 prostate cancer patients were performed immediately before treatments and used to retrospectively evaluate the precision of this daily prostate targeting method. The three-dimensional displacement of the prostate with respect to its planned position was estimated.

RESULTS

Five axial slices from each treatment CT scan were sufficient to produce a reliable correction when compared with prostate center of gravity (CoG) displacements calculated from physician-drawn contours. The differences (mean +/- SD) between these two correction schemes in the right-left (R/L), posterior-anterior (P/A), and superior-inferior (S/I) directions are 0.0 +/- 0.4 mm, 0.0 +/- 0.7 mm, and -0.4 +/- 1.9 mm, respectively. With daily CT extent-fitting correction, 97% of the scans showed that the entire posterior prostate gland was covered by PTV given a margin of 6 mm at the rectum-prostate interface and 10 mm elsewhere. In comparison, only 74% and 65% could be achieved by the corrections based on daily and weekly bony matching on portal images, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Results show that daily CT extent fitting provides a precise correction of prostate position in terms of CoG. Identifying prostate extents on five axial CT slices at the CT console is less time-consuming compared with daily contouring of the prostate on many slices. Taking advantage of the prostate curvature in the longitudinal direction, this method also eliminates the necessity of identifying prostate base and apex. Therefore, it is clinically feasible and should provide an accelerated localization of the prostate immediately before daily treatment.

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy: a novel approach to the management of malignant pleural mesothelioma

PURPOSE

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) causes symptoms and death mainly due to local progression, even after combined modality treatment. Poor local control after conventional radiotherapy may be due to the low dose of radiation that has been administered or to restriction of the target volume to avoid critical organs. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) has the potential to overcome these geometric/dosimetric constraints.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Seven patients with MPM who had an extrapleural pneumonectomy (EPP) were treated with adjuvant IMRT. The clinical target volume (CTV) included the surgically violated area inside the chest wall with particular attention to the insertion of the diaphragm, pleural reflections, and the deep margin of the thoracotomy incision. Treatment was delivered by intensity-modulated 6-MV photon beams using dynamic multileaf collimation.

RESULTS

The CTV ranged from 2667 to 7286 mL. The average CTV covered to 50 Gy was 94% (range, 92% to 98%). Respiratory motion was minimal. The average volume of the boost areas covered by 60 Gy was 92% (range, 82% to 99%). Dose-volume constraints for normal tissue were met in almost all cases. Acute toxicity was mild to moderate. The most severe side effects were anorexia, nausea or vomiting, and dyspnea. Esophagitis was absent or mild. After a minimum of 13 months follow-up care there were no cases of disease recurrence within the ipsilateral hemithorax.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of the extensive operative area after an EPP is feasible using IMRT. Input from the radiologist and from the surgeon in the planning process facilitates definition of the high dose volumes. In light of patients' tolerance to post-EPP IMRT, it may be feasible to incorporate systemic therapy, including novel biologic therapies into the treatment regimen.

CT image-guided intensity-modulated therapy for paraspinal tumors using stereotactic immobilization

PURPOSE

To design and implement a noninvasive stereotactic immobilization technique with daily CT image-guided positioning to treat patients with paraspinal lesions accurately and to quantify the systematic and random patient setup errors occurring with this method.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A stereotactic body frame (SBF) was developed for "rigid" immobilization of paraspinal patients. The inherent accuracy of this system for stereotactic CT-guided treatment was evaluated with phantom studies. Seven patients with thoracic and lumbar spine lesions were immobilized with the SBF and positioned for 33 treatment fractions using daily CT scans. For all 7 patients, the daily setup errors, as assessed from the daily CT scans, were corrected at each treatment fraction. A retrospective analysis was also performed to assess what the impact on patient treatment would have been without the CT-based corrections (i.e., if patient setup had been performed only with the SBF).

RESULTS

The average magnitude of systematic and random errors from uncorrected patient setups using the SBF was approximately 2 mm and 1.5 mm (1 SD), respectively. For fixed phantom targets, the system accuracy for the SBF localization and treatment was shown to be within 1 mm (1 SD) in any direction. Dose-volume histograms incorporating these uncertainties for an intensity-modulated radiotherapy plan for lumbar spine lesions were generated, and the effects on the dose-volume histograms were studied.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated a very accurate and precise method of patient immobilization and treatment delivery based on a noninvasive SBF and daily image guidance for paraspinal lesions. The SBF provides excellent immobilization for paraspinal targets, with setup accuracy better than 2 mm (1 SD). However, for highly conformal paraspinal treatments, uncorrected systematic and random errors of 2 mm in magnitude can result in a significantly greater (>100%) dose to the spinal cord than planned, even though the planned target coverage may not change substantially. With daily CT guidance using the SBF, we showed that the maximal spinal cord dose is ensured to be within 10-15% of the planned value.

Inverse and forward optimization of one- and two-dimensional intensity-modulated radiation therapy-based treatment of concave-shaped planning target volumes: the case of prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) was suggested as a suitable technique to protect the rectal wall, while maintaining a satisfactory planning target volume (PTV) irradiation in the case of high-dose radiotherapy of prostate cancer. However, up to now, few investigations tried to estimate the expected benefit with respect to conventional three-dimensional (3D) conformal radiotherapy (CRT).

PURPOSE

Estimating the expected clinical gain coming from both 1D and 2D IMRT against 3DCRT, in the case of prostate cancer by mean of radiobiological models. In order to enhance the impact of IMRT, the case of concave-shaped PTV including prostate and seminal vesicles (P+SV) was considered.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five patients with concave-shaped PTV including P+SV were selected. Two different sets of constraints were applied during planning: in the first one a quite large inhomogeneity of the dose distribution within the PTV was accepted (set (a)); in the other set (set (b)) a greater homogeneity was required. Tumor control probability (TCP) and normal tissue control probability (NTCP) indices were calculated through the Webb-Nahum and the Lyman-Kutcher models, respectively. Considering a dose interval from 64.8 to 100.8 Gy, the value giving a 5% NTCP for the rectum was found (D(NTCP(rectum)=5%)) using two different methods, and the corresponding TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) and NTCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) for the other critical structures were derived. With the first method, the inverse optimization of the plans was performed just at a fixed 75.6 Gy ICRU dose; with the second method (applied to 2/5 patients) inverse treatment plannings were re-optimized at many dose levels (from 64.8 to 108 Gy with 3.6 Gy intervals). In this case, three different values of alpha/beta (10, 3, 1.5)were used for TCP calculation. The 3DCRT plan consisted of a 3-fields technique; in the IMRT plans, five equi-spaced beams were applied. The Helios Inverse Planning software from Varian was used for both the 2D IMRT and the 1D IMRT inverse optimization, the last one being performed fixing only one available pair of leaves for modulation. A previously proposed forward 1D IMRT 'class solution' technique was also considered, keeping the same irradiation geometry of the inversely optimized IMRT techniques.

RESULTS

With the first method, the average gains in TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) of the 2D IMRT technique, with respect 3DCRT, were 10.3 and 7.8%, depending on the choice of the DVHs constraints during the inverse optimization procedure (set (a) and set (b), respectively). The average gain (DeltaTCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%)) coming from the inverse 1D IMRT optimization was 5.0%, when fixing the set (b) DVHs constraints. Concerning the forward 1D IMRT optimization, the average gain in TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) was 4.5%. The gain was found to be correlated with the degree of overlapping between rectum and PTV. When comparing 2D IMRT and 1D IMRT, in the case of the more realistic set (b) constraints, DeltaTCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) was always less than 3%, excepting one patient with a very large overlap region. Basing our choice on this result, the second method was applied to this patient and one of the remaining. Through the inverse re-optimization of the treatment plans at each dose level, the gain in TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) of the inverse 2D technique was significantly higher than the ones obtained by applying the first method (concerning the two patients: +6.1% and +2.4%), while no significant benefit was found for inverse 1D. The impact of changing the alpha/beta ratio was less evident in the patient with the lower gain in TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%).

CONCLUSIONS

The expected benefit due to IMRT with respect to 3DCRT seems to be relevant when the overlap between PTV and rectum is high. Moreover, the difference between the inverse 2D and the simpler inverse or forward 1D IMRT techniques resulted in being relatively modest, with the exception of one patient, having a very large overlap between rectum and PTV. Optimizing the inverse planning at each dose level to find TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%)e level to find TCP(NTCP(rectum)=5%) can improve the performances of inverse 2D IMRT, against a significant increase of the time for planning. These results suggest the importance of selecting the patients that could have significant benefit from the application of IMRT.

Treatment of pancreatic cancer tumors with intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) using the volume at risk approach (VARA): employing dose-volume histogram (DVH) and normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) to evaluate small bowel toxicity

The emergent use of a combined modality approach (chemotherapy and radiation) in pancreatic cancer is associated with increased gastrointestinal toxicity. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) has the potential to deliver adequate dose to the tumor volume while decreasing the dose to critical structures such as the small bowel. We evaluated the influence of IMRT with inverse treatment planning on the dose-volume histograms (DVHs) of normal tissue compared to standard 3-dimensional conformal radiation treatment (3D-CRT) in patients with pancreatic cancer. Between July 1999 and May 2001, 10 randomly selected patients with adenocarcinoma of the pancreatic head were planned simultaneously with 3D-CRT and inverse-planned IMRT using the volume at risk approach (VaRA) and compared for various dosimetric parameters. DVH and normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) were calculated using IMRT and 3D-CRT plans. The aim of the treatment plan was to deliver 61.2 Gy to the gross tumor volume (GTV) and 45 Gy to the clinical treatment volume (CTV) while maintaining critical normal tissues to below specified tolerances. IMRT plans were more conformal than 3D-CRT plans. The average dose delivered to one third of the small bowel was lower with the IMRT plan compared to 3D-CRT. The IMRT plan resulted in one third of the small bowel receiving 30.2+/-12.9 Gy vs. 38.5+/-14.2 Gy with 3D-CRT (p = 0.006). The median volume of small bowel that received greater than either 50 or 60 Gy was reduced with IMRT. The median volume of small bowel exceeding 50 Gy was 19.2+/-11.2% (range 3% to 45%) compared to 31.4+/-21.3 (range 7% to 70%) for 3D-CRT (p = 0.048). The median volume of small bowel that received greater than 60 Gy was 12.5+/-4.8% for IMRT compared to 19.8+/-18.6% for 3D-CRT (p = 0.034). The VaRA approach employing IMRT techniques resulted in a lower dose per volume of small bowel that exceeded 60 Gy. We used the Lyman-Kutcher models to compare the probability of small bowel injury employing IMRT compared to 3D-CRT. The BIOPLAN model predicted a small bowel complication probability of 9.3+/-6% with IMRT compared to 24.4+/-18.9% with 3D-CRT delivery of dose (p = 0.021). IMRT with an inverse treatment plan has the potential to significantly improve radiation therapy of pancreatic cancers by reducing normal tissue dose, and simultaneously allow escalation of dose to further enhance locoregional control.

Lymphangiogram-assisted lymph node target delineation for patients with gynecologic malignancies

PURPOSE

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy for gynecologic malignancies requires proper knowledge of the volumes to be irradiated and accurate delineation of these volumes on a three-dimensional projection. In this study, assisted by lymphangiography (LAG), we derived guidelines for delineating nodal target volumes on CT.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sixteen patients with cervical cancer who underwent radiotherapy between 1995 and 1999 at the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology were enrolled in the study. The initial 6 patients underwent bipedal LAG as part of the staging workup. Cross-sectional CT images were acquired and analyzed, and lymph node locations were described relative to the aorta, vena cava, common iliac, external iliac, and femoral vessels. The greatest distance from lymph node to vessel wall and pelvic sidewall was determined for each nodal group. This served as a guideline from which the clinical target volume (CTV) definitions were developed. This proposed CTV was then applied to CT scans of 10 patients to determine the amounts of normal tissues encompassed.

RESULTS

Nodal CTV guidelines were derived to cover 100% of LAG-avid lymph nodes. This CTV definition encompassed an average of 58.1 +/- 22.8 cm(3) (6.8% +/- 2.8% of total volume) small bowel, 28.4 +/- 19.2 cm(3) (4.2% +/- 3.2%) large bowel, 8.6 +/- 8.6 cm(3) (3.2% +/- 2.6%) bladder, and 1.6 +/- 3.1 cm(3) (1.0% +/- 1.7%) rectum. The absolute volume and fraction of normal tissues encompassed by CTV plus 1- or 2-cm margins were calculated.

CONCLUSION

This study presents the first time that three-dimensional lymph node mapping with the aid of LAG has been used to generate a nodal CTV guideline. This information may assist radiation oncologists in properly determining nodal target volumes and selecting a margin around the CTV for intensity-modulated radiotherapy.

Primary radiation therapy for localized prostate cancer

Prostate cancer in men is similar to breast cancer in women; both cancers rank first, respectively, in incidence and are normally responsive to radiation therapy. In addition, advances in mammography help detect earlier breast cancers, and the development and refinement of prostatic specific antigen (PSA) has resulted in early detection of low-stage localized prostate cancers. This has generated debate over the proper management of localized prostate cancer. While there have not been any controlled, prospective, randomized trials of sufficient power to compare the various local therapies, based on the current available data, the three commonly used local modalities, surgery, and external beam radiation therapy and brachytherapy (radioactive seed implant), have similar efficacy controlling the disease up to 10 years in many patients. Technological advances in treatment delivery and planning have improved the treatment of prostate cancer with external-beam radiotherapy using three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3DCRT), ultrasound-guided transperineal implant, or intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), as well as proton or neutron beam based therapies.

An evaluation of gating window size, delivery method, and composite field dosimetry of respiratory-gated IMRT

A respiratory gating system has been developed based on a commercial patient positioning system. The purpose of this study is to investigate the ability of the gating system to reproduce normal, nongated IMRT operation and to quantify the errors produced by delivering a nongated IMRT treatment onto a moving target. A moving phantom capable of simultaneous two-dimensional motion was built, and an analytical liver motion function was used to drive the phantom. Studies were performed to assess the effect of gating window size and choice of delivery method (segmented and dynamic multileaf collimation). Additionally, two multiple field IMRT cases were delivered to quantify the error in gated and nongated IMRT with motion. Dosimetric error between nonmoving and moving deliveries is related to gating window size. By reducing the window size, the error can be reduced. Delivery error can be reduced for both dynamic and segmented delivery with gating. For the implementation of dynamic IMRT delivery in this study, dynamic delivery was found to generate larger delivery errors than segmented delivery in most cases studied. For multiple field IMRT delivery, the largest errors were generated in regions where high field modulation was present parallel to the axis of motion. Gating was found to reduce these large errors to clinically acceptable levels.

Evaluation of concave dose distributions created using an inverse planning system

PURPOSE

To evaluate and develop optimum inverse treatment planning strategies for the treatment of concave targets adjacent to normal tissue structures.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Optimized dose distributions were designed using an idealized geometry consisting of a cylindrical phantom with a concave kidney-shaped target (PTV) and cylindrical normal tissues (NT) placed 5-13 mm from the target. Targets with radii of curvature from 1 to 2.75 cm were paired with normal tissues with radii between 0.5 and 2.25 cm. The target was constrained to a prescription dose of 100% and minimum and maximum doses of 95% and 105% with relative penalties of 25. Maximum dose constraint parameters for the NT varied from 10% to 70% with penalties from 10 to 1000. Plans were evaluated using the PTV uniformity index (PTV D(max)/PTV D(95)) and maximum normal tissue doses (NT D(max)/PTV D(95)).

RESULTS

In nearly all situations, the achievable PTV uniformity index and the maximum NT dose exceeded the corresponding constraints. This was particularly true for small PTV-NT separations (5-8 mm) or strict NT dose constraints (10%-30%), where the achievable doses differed from the requested by 30% or more. The same constraint parameters applied to different PTV-NT separations yielded different dose distributions. For most geometries, a range of constraints could be identified that would lead to acceptable plans. The optimization results were fairly independent of beam energy and radius of curvature, but improved as the number of beams increased, particularly for small PTV-NT separations or strict dose constraints.

CONCLUSION

Optimized dose distributions are strongly affected by both the constraint parameters and target-normal tissue geometry. Standard site-specific constraint templates can serve as a starting point for optimization, but the final constraints must be determined iteratively for individual patients. A strategy whereby NT constraints and penalties are modified until the highest acceptable PTV uniformity index is achieved is discussed. This strategy can be used, in simple patient geometries, to ensure the lowest possible normal tissue dose. Strategies for setting the optimum dose constraints and penalties may vary for different optimization algorithms and objective functions. Increasing the number of beams can significantly improve normal tissue dose and target uniformity in situations where the PTV-NT separation is small or the normal tissue dose limits are severe. Setting unrealistically severe constraints in such situations often results in dose distributions that are inferior to plans achieved with more lenient constraints.

A review of intensity modulated radiation therapy: incorporating a report on the seventh education workshop of the ACPSEM--ACT/NSW branch. Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine

Intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) is an evolving treatment technique that has become a clinical treatment option in several radiotherapy centres around the world. In August 2001 the ACT/NSW branch of the ACPSEM held its seventh education workshop, the subject was IMRT. This review considers the current use of IMRT and reports on the proceedings of the workshop. The workshop provided some of the theory behind IMRT, discussion of the practical issues associated with IMRT, and also involved presentations from Australian centres that had clinically implemented IMRT. The main topics of discussion were patient selection, plan assessment, multi-disciplinary approach, quality assurance and delivery of IMRT. Key points that were emphasised were the need for a balanced multi-disciplinary approach to IMRT, in both the establishment and maintenance of an IMRT program; the importance of the accuracy of the final dose distribution as compared to the minor in-field fluctuations of individual beams; and that IMRT is an emerging treatment technique, undergoing continuing development and refinement.

High-dose intensity modulated radiation therapy for prostate cancer: early toxicity and biochemical outcome in 772 patients

PURPOSE

To report the acute and late toxicity and preliminary biochemical outcomes in 772 patients with clinically localized prostate cancer treated with high-dose intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Between April 1996 and January 2001, 772 patients with clinically localized prostate cancer were treated with IMRT. Treatment was planned using an inverse-planning approach, and the desired beam intensity profiles were delivered by dynamic multileaf collimation. A total of 698 patients (90%) were treated to 81.0 Gy, and 74 patients (10%) were treated to 86.4 Gy. Acute and late toxicities were scored by the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group morbidity grading scales. PSA relapse was defined according to The American Society of Therapeutic Radiation Oncology Consensus Statement. The median follow-up time was 24 months (range: 6-60 months).

RESULTS

Thirty-five patients (4.5%) developed acute Grade 2 rectal toxicity, and no patient experienced acute Grade 3 or higher rectal symptoms. Two hundred seventeen patients (28%) developed acute Grade 2 urinary symptoms, and one experienced urinary retention (Grade 3). Eleven patients (1.5%) developed late Grade 2 rectal bleeding. Four patients (0.1%) experienced Grade 3 rectal toxicity requiring either one or more transfusions or a laser cauterization procedure. No Grade 4 rectal complications have been observed. The 3-year actuarial likelihood of >/= late Grade 2 rectal toxicity was 4%. Seventy-two patients (9%) experienced late Grade 2 urinary toxicity, and five (0.5%) developed Grade 3 urinary toxicity (urethral stricture). The 3-year actuarial likelihood of >/= late Grade 2 urinary toxicity was 15%. The 3-year actuarial PSA relapse-free survival rates for favorable, intermediate, and unfavorable risk group patients were 92%, 86%, and 81%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate the feasibility of high-dose IMRT in a large number of patients. Acute and late rectal toxicities seem to be significantly reduced compared with what has been observed with conventional three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy techniques. Short-term PSA control rates seem to be at least comparable to those achieved with three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy at similar dose levels. Based on this favorable risk:benefit ratio, IMRT has become the standard mode of conformal treatment delivery for localized prostate cancer at our institution.

Effects of intra-fraction motion on IMRT dose delivery: statistical analysis and simulation

There has been some concern that organ motion, especially intra-fraction organ motion due to breathing, can negate the potential merit of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). We wanted to find out whether this concern is justified. Specifically, we wanted to investigate whether IMRT delivery techniques with moving parts, e.g., with a multileaf collimator (MLC), are particularly sensitive to organ motion due to the interplay between organ motion and leaf motion. We also wanted to know if, and by how much, fractionation of the treatment can reduce the effects. We performed a statistical analysis and calculated the expected dose values and dose variances for volume elements of organs that move during the delivery of the IMRT. We looked at the overall influence of organ motion during the course of a fractionated treatment. A linear-quadratic model was used to consider fractionation effects. Furthermore, we developed software to simulate motion effects for IMRT delivery with an MLC, with compensators, and with a scanning beam. For the simulation we assumed a sinusoidal motion in an isocentric plane. We found that the expected dose value is independent of the treatment technique. It is just a weighted average over the path of motion of the dose distribution without motion. If the treatment is delivered in several fractions, the distribution of the dose around the expected value is close to a Gaussian. For a typical treatment with 30 fractions, the standard deviation is generally within 1% of the expected value for MLC delivery if one assumes a typical motion amplitude of 5 mm (1 cm peak to peak). The standard deviation is generally even smaller for the compensator but bigger for scanning beam delivery. For the latter it can be reduced through multiple deliveries ('paintings') of the same field. In conclusion, the main effect of organ motion in IMRT is an averaging of the dose distribution without motion over the path of the motion. This is the same as for treatments with conventional beams. Additional effects that are specific to the IMRT delivery technique appear to be relatively small, except for the scanning beam.

Current therapy for malignant mesothelioma

This review briefly summarizes the results of previous systemic (chemotherapy) and local (surgery and radiotherapy) treatment attempted to date for malignant mesothelioma. The prospects for newer modalities, ie molecular and biologic therapies, are also highlighted, including results of both preclinical and early clinical research.

Issues in optimization for planning of intensity-modulated radiation therapy

The clinical use of intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) is expanding rapidly in academic and, more recently, in community-based radiotherapy centers due to a high level of clinician interest, improving reimbursement patterns, and the availability of the tools required to plan and deliver IMRT plans. These tools include inverse planning optimization algorithms and linear accelerator control systems with automated, multifield delivery capabilities. The hazards of this new technology are due primarily to the nonintuitive nature of the inverse planning process and the highly complex methods of delivery required for IMRT dose delivery. Important efforts are being made to define the required quality assurance for these computer-optimized IMRT plans and to find ways to reduce their complexity without reducing the quality of the resulting plans. By minimizing the complexity of these dose plans, one also minimizes the treatment time and the probability of dose delivery errors. Methods of optimization and evaluation of dose plans and practical considerations in inverse planning are discussed. In addition, this article points out the potential hazards of inverse-planned IMRT and discusses methods by which the complexity of these plans might be reduced.

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy for prostate cancer

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) represents a new paradigm in radiation treatment planning and delivery for treatment of prostate cancer with enormous potential. Preliminary data indicate that this highly conformal treatment technique can effectively reduce acute and late-occurring toxicities, improving the quality of life of the treated patient and serving as the optimal dose escalation tool. IMRT produces radiation distributions capable of delivering different dose prescriptions to multiple target sites, providing a new opportunity for differential dose painting to increase the dose selectively to specific, image-defined regions within the prostate. Clinical trials will be necessary to define more clearly the true extent of improved tumor control and reduction in normal tissue complications with IMRT in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Delivery systems of intensity-modulated radiotherapy using conventional multileaf collimators

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) using conventional multileaf collimators (MLCs) has gained much attention in the radiation therapy community. To implement IMRT safely and efficiently, it is essential to understand the characteristics of MLCs, the associated delivery systems, and the limitations of each system when applied to IMRT. In this article, 3 major manufactured MLC collimators are reviewed, including the general descriptions such as the location of the MLC, whether or not it is single focused or double focused, the physical characteristics of leaves, the leaf movement restrictions, and the maximum achievable field size for IMRT delivery. MLC-based static and dynamic mechanisms are reviewed, and the delivery systems for these 3 collimators are described. Machine-related and patient plan-related quality assurance issues are discussed. Our conclusions are that MLC-based IMRT delivery is practical; however, extensive efforts are needed when IMRT is implemented in clinics.

IMRT: high-definition radiation therapy in a community hospital

A multileaf collimator (MLC)-based intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) program was implemented successfully at Monmouth Medical Center, a community hospital at Long Branch, New Jersey. Our clinical experience gained in the treatment of over 80 patients using IMRT for prostate, head and neck, and brain is reviewed, and some of the clinical issues are also, discussed. Implementation of the IMRT requires a treatment planning system, computer-controlled beam-shaping aperture, electronic record and verify system, and a good physics quality assurance program. These components, by grouping them efficiently, have created a seamless workflow for our complete radiotherapy process of IMRT. Each of these radiotherapy processes are discussed for clarity and the clinical importance is also evaluated. Of particular interest is inverse treatment planning that will impact treatment delivery such as beam orientation, treatment ports, and organ motion of IMRT. A checklist for physics and departmental quality assurance is suggested, with the intention of providing systematic workflow, making IMRT feasible at a community medical center setting. This is especially important because most of our cancer patients received radiation therapy locally. Lastly, the reimbursement issue affecting the implementation of IMRT at our medical center is also discussed to justify this new treatment protocol for future clinical outcomes.

Intensity modulation using multileaf collimators: current status

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) extends the capability of 3D conformal methods (3D-CRT). Studies show that these methods can clinically reduce complications and can allow a larger safety margin for dose escalation. The ultimate goal is improved survival and improved quality of life. IMRT methods typically require more fields, or segments, and more monitor units for a given dose, as compared to conventional CRT methods. Because of this, some multileaf collimator (MLC) parameters take on more importance. A review of current standard MLC configurations are discussed, along with the concept of integral dose. An effective quality assurance (QA) program for IMRT involves more than dose modeling of the MLC. Integrity of data flowing from 3D radiograph databases to treatment planning to delivery sequencing files to verify-and-record function is required. End users need to be aware of differences in commercial availability vs. in-house developments for configuring a system. Great strides have been made in streamlining the whole process. This is evidenced by the first major symposium on community-based IMRT. Research continues to improve accuracy and productivity.

Inverse planning algorithms for external beam radiation therapy

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) is a new treatment technique that has the potential to produce superior dose distributions to those of conventional techniques. An important step in IMRT is inverse planning, or optimization. This is a process by which the optimum intensity distribution is determined by minimizing (or maximizing) an objective function. For radiation therapy, the objective function is used to describe the clinical goals, which can be expressed in terms of dose and dose/volume requirements, or in terms of biological indices. There are 2 types of search algorithms, stochastic and deterministic. Typical algorithms that are currently in use are presented. For clinical implementations, other issues are also discussed, such as global minimum vs. local minima, dose uniformity in the target and sparing of normal tissues, smoothing of the intensity profile, and skin flash. To illustrate the advantages of IMRT, clinical examples for the treatment of the prostate, nasopharynx, and breast are presented. IMRT is an emerging technique that has shown encouraging results thus far. However, the technique is still in its infancy and more research and improvements are needed. For example, the effects of treatment uncertainties on the planning and delivery of IMRT requires further study. As with any new technology, IMRT should be used with great caution.