Improving risk assessments for sex offenders: a comparison of three actuarial scales

The "polymorphously perverse" psychopath: understanding a strong empirical relationship

The relationship between psychopathy and sexual offending has been empirically established, but it is little understood. The author proposes nine explanations to provide a conceptual basis for this empirical relationship: (1) search polygyny, (2) callousness and a lack of empathy, (3) a lack of attachment or bonding, (4) sensation seeking as a product of chronic cortical underarousal, (5) grandiosity, (6) entitlement, (7) a predominance of part-object relations, (8) a high frequency of predatory violence, and (9) the leaving by consensual sex partners when the psychopathy is identified. These explanations, constructed from anthropological, psychobiological, attachment, psychoanalytic, and aggression research, find some direct and indirect empirical support in the extant literature. They contribute to understanding the "polymorphously perverse" sexuality of the psychopath.

Violent adolescent sexual offenders

The past 20 years have brought a significant increase in the general knowledge about adolescent offenders and sexual offenders and the potential harm that they cause to victims. Currently, however, we are left with perhaps more questions than answers in several important areas. We have concluded that there is no single cause or etiologic agent common to all sexual offenders. Sexual offenders are by nature a complex and a heterogeneous group, and sexual offending is likely caused by multiple causation and interactive factors. Awareness has spread as to the necessity of providing appropriate assessment and treatment facilities for adolescents. The limited outcome studies indicate a lower recidivism rate for adolescent offenders than adult offenders. This may reflect a better prognosis for adolescent offenders who have not had years of reinforcement of deviant sexual arousal patterns and whose personality traits are more malleable than those of adult offenders. Further research is needed in the area of subclassification of sexual offenders, controlled treatment studies, and prospective longitudinal studies to determine more accurate risk assessment.

A comparison of modified versions of the Static-99 and the Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide

The predictive validity of 2 risk assessment instruments for sex offenders, modified versions of the Static-99 and the Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide, was examined and compared in a sample of 258 adult male sex offenders. In addition, the independent contributions to the prediction of recidivism made by each instrument and by various phallometric indices were explored. Both instruments demonstrated moderate levels of predictive accuracy for sexual and violent (including sexual) recidivism. They were not significantly different in terms of their predictive accuracy for sexual or violent recidivism, nor did they contribute independently to the prediction of sexual or violent recidivism. Of the phallometric indices examined, only the pedophile index added significantly to the prediction of sexual recidivism, but not violent recidivism, above the Static-99 alone.

Risk assessment in offenders with intellectual disability: the evidence base

A review of the current literature on risk assessment and management in offenders with intellectual disability (ID) revealed little direct evidence for the specific population. Theoretical models and non-ID populations have been abstracted and adapted, but not validated, for those with ID. The varying conceptual frameworks of risk, and its assessment and management, must be considered in context. Difficulties remain with the consideration of offences versus offence-like behaviour, offender versus those with similar needs, and indeed, what is regarded as 'intellectual disability'. Mainstream forensic assessment has moved towards a more dynamic appreciation of risk and risk management, as opposed to risk elimination. This development is more in line with the normalization principles of 'risk-taking' in ID. Consideration is given to future research and development priorities.

The relationship between static and dynamic risk factors and reconviction in a sample of U.K. child abusers

This study examined how well historical information and psychometric data predicted sexual recidivism in a sample of child abusers about to undergo group-based cognitive behavioral treatment in the community. Static, historical factors, as measured by the Static-99 (R. K. Hanson & D. Thornton, 2000), significantly predicted recidivism over the 6-year follow-up period. High-risk men were over 5 times more likely to be reconvicted for a sexual offence compared to low-risk men. Adding psychometric measures of dynamic risk (e.g., pro-offending attitudes, socio-affective problems) significantly increased the accuracy of risk prediction beyond the level achieved by the actuarial assessment of static factors. This result indicates the importance of considering dynamic risk factors in any comprehensive risk protocol.

Constructing and testing a framework for dynamic risk assessment

This paper describes the construction and testing of a framework for dynamic risk assessment. A review of previous studies identified 4 domains into which dynamic risk factors for sexual offending seem to fall. These were sexual interests, distorted attitudes, socioaffective functioning, and self-management. Psychometric indicators for 3 of the domains were identified, and 2 studies are reported using these indicators to test the framework. Study 1 divided men serving a prison sentence for a sexual offense against a child into 2 groups--those with a previous conviction of this kind (Repeaters) and those for whom this was the only time they had been sentenced for such an offense (Current Only). The Repeaters were found to show more distorted attitudes, worse socioaffective functioning, and poorer self-management than did the Current Only group. Study 2 used a simple algorithm to combine these psychometric indicators into an overall "Deviance" classification. Reconviction data was obtained for offenders classified as high, moderate, or low on Deviance. Sexual reconviction was found to be monotonically associated with the Deviance classification. Logistic regression analysis showed that both static variables (Static-99) and the Deviance classification made independent contributions to prediction. It is suggested that risk assessment procedures should combine these 2 approaches.

First report of the collaborative outcome data project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sex offenders

This meta-analytic review examined the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sex offenders by summarizing data from 43 studies (combined n = 9,454). Averaged across all studies, the sexual offence recidivism rate was lower for the treatment groups (12.3%) than the comparison groups (16.8%, 38 studies, unweighted average). A similar pattern was found for general recidivism, although the overall rates were predictably higher (treatment 27.9%, comparison 39.2%, 30 studies). Current treatments (cognitive-behavioral, k = 13; systemic, k = 2) were associated with reductions in both sexual recidivism (from 17.4 to 9.9%) and general recidivism (from 51 to 32%). Older forms of treatment (operating prior to 1980) appeared to have little effect. Future directions for improving the quality of sex offender treatment outcome evaluations are discussed.

The practice of forensic psychology. A look toward the future in light of the past

In a 1987 American Psychologist article, Tom Grisso summarized the state of forensic psychological assessment, noted its limitations and potential, and offered suggestions for researchers and practitioners interested in contributing to its future. Since that time, there have been many important developments in the field of forensic psychology, as well as in clinical psychology more generally, some of which were anticipated and recommended by Grisso, and some of which were not. Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers. The need to distinguish between and identify levels of forensic knowledge and practice, establish guidelines for practice, educate legal consumers, and devote more attention to treatment issues in forensic contexts is highlighted.

Restorative justice innovations in Canada

As many jurisdictions move towards more retributive measures as a means to address public discontent with crime, a parallel movement has developed in regard to restorative justice. This article presents three restorative initiatives currently in use in Canada. Each initiative addresses offender behavior and community engagement at a different point in the justice continuum. The use of Sentencing Circles is an example of how restorative justice principles can be instituted at the front end, prior to an offender becoming lodged in the system. The Restorative Justice Options to Parole Suspension project demonstrates how community engagement can assist in preventing offenders from being returned to the system once they have achieved conditional release. The Circles of Support and Accountability project has enlisted the support of professionally supported volunteers in the community reintegration of high-risk sexual offenders. These initiatives are presented within a framework of effective correctional interventions and increased empowerment for a variety of stakeholders.

A structured approach to evaluating change among sexual offenders

Presently, there are no established scales that evaluate change in risk among sexual offenders. The Sex Offender Need Assessment Rating (SONAR) was developed to fill this gap. The SONAR includes five relatively stable factors (intimacy deficits, negative social influences, attitudes tolerant of sex offending, sexual self-regulation, general self-regulation) and four acute factors (substance abuse, negative mood, anger, victim access). The psychometric properties of the scale were examined using data previously collected by Hanson and Harris (1998, 2000). Overall, the scale showed adequate internal consistency and moderate ability to differentiate between recidivists and nonrecidivists (r = .43; ROC area of .74). SONAR continued to distinguish between the groups after controlling for well-established risk indicators, such as age, and scores on the Static-99 (Hanson & Thornton, 2000) and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (Quinsey, Harris, Rice, & Cormier, 1998).

Relapse prevention with sex offenders: practice, theory and research

INTRODUCTION: Relapse prevention (RP) is now applied to sex offending. It has been questioned as to whether RP is worthwhile. This paper aims to evaluate this technique. THE ROCHESTER RP PROGRAMME: The purpose of the Rochester RP programme is to refine and strengthen skills gained in the prison department's sex offender treatment programme. The objective of the programme is to teach prisoners to recognize the chain of events leading up to their current offences and to practise strategies to interrupt this chain. THEORETICAL BASIS FOR RP: Stopping an undesired behaviour and maintaining abstinence are two different problems. RP aims to address the maintenance problems. At the centre of RP theory is a study of the conditions that can turn lapse into relapse. Yet RP has been criticized as a lot of jargon saying very little. Ward and Hudson criticize RP constructs and their interaction. Such debates have few implications for clinical work and most of the criticism flies in the face of clinical experience. RESEARCH BASIS FOR RP: Risk factors for sex offenders are being identified. Local evaluation of the Rochester programme suggests that prisoners do learn to identify risk factors and to develop coping strategies. As yet, however, there is no evidence as to whether RP works or not. DISCUSSION: A way to improve the efficacy of an RP programme may be to augment it with additional modules, e.g. behaviour therapy, drug treatment, continued work with the same prison staff and relaxation training. CONCLUSION: RP theory is sound in essence but suffers from an overlay of cumbersome vocabulary. Reliable research is emerging.