Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group

A real-time PCR assay for the differentiation of Candida species

AIMS

We established a real-time PCR assay for the detection and strain identification of Candida species and demonstrated the ability to differentiate between Candida albicans the most common species, and also Candida parapsilosis, Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis and Candida dubliniensis by LightCycler PCR and melting curve analysis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The DNA isolation from cultures and serum was established using the QIAmp Tissue Kit. The sensitivity of the assay was ≥ 2 genome equivalents/assay. It was possible to differentiate all investigated Candida species by melting curve analysis, and no cross-reaction to human DNA or Aspergillus species could be observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The established real-time PCR assay is a useful tool for the rapid identification of Candida species and a base technology for more complex PCR assays.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

We carried out initial steps in validation of a PCR assay for the detection and differentiation of medically relevant Candida species. The PCR was improved by generating PCR standards, additional generation of melting curves for species identification and the possibility to investigate different specimens simultaneously.

Primary diagnostic approaches of invasive aspergillosis--molecular testing

The PCR methods published for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis (IA) are diverse in terms of amplification protocols and methods, equipment, fluorescent detection dyes, PCR chemistries, and clinical specimens used. This explains why PCR is still not included in the revised EORTC/MSG definitions of IA despite encouraging results. Therefore, achieving consensual PCR procedures at the international level is mandatory. When using PCR as a diagnostic tool, emphasis must be put on limiting false positive results due to contamination either with previously amplified products or with environmental commensals. Internal amplification controls are compulsory to evidence false negative results. For most of these aspects, quantitative PCR (qPCR) should improve both the results' reliability and the clinicians' confidence. A checklist of items (Minimum information for publication of quantitative real-time PCR experiments) has been proposed to help scientists and reviewers. Currently, the main limitation relies in the DNA extraction procedure the choice of which dramatically depends on the still unknown origin of the Aspergillus DNA to amplify. There is an urgent need for basic studies to elucidate the origin and kinetics of Aspergillus DNA in blood. Once a technical consensus is achieved, clinical studies should be initiated to integrate qPCR in the diagnostic armentarium of IA.

Multiplex blood PCR in combination with blood cultures for improvement of microbiological documentation of infection in febrile neutropenia

The frequent lack of microbiological documentation of infection by blood cultures (BC) has a major impact on clinical management of febrile neutropenic patients, especially in cases of unexplained persistent fever. We assessed the diagnostic utility of the LightCycler SeptiFast test (SF), a multiplex blood PCR, in febrile neutropenia. Blood for BC and SF was drawn at the onset of fever and every 3 days of persistent fever. SF results were compared with those of BC, clinical documentation of infection, and standard clinical, radiological, and microbiological criteria for invasive fungal infections (IFI). A total of 141 febrile neutropenic episodes in 86 hematological patients were studied: 44 (31%) microbiologically and 49 (35%) clinically documented infections and 48 (34%) unexplained fevers. At the onset of fever, BC detected 44 microorganisms in 35/141 (25%) episodes. Together, BC and SF identified 78 microorganisms in 61/141 (43%) episodes (P = 0.002 versus BC or SF alone): 12 were detected by BC and SF, 32 by BC only, and 34 by SF only. In 19/52 (37%) episodes of persistent fever, SF detected 28 new microorganisms (7 Gram-positive bacterial species, 15 Gram-negative bacterial species, and 6 fungal species [89% with a clinically documented site of infection]) whereas BC detected only 4 pathogens (8%) (P = 0.001). While BC did not detect fungi, SF identified 5 Candida spp. and 1 Aspergillus sp. in 5/7 probable or possible cases of IFI. Using SeptiFast PCR combined with blood cultures improves microbiological documentation in febrile neutropenia, especially when fever persists and invasive fungal infection is suspected. Technical adjustments may enhance the efficiency of this new molecular tool in this specific setting.

The (1,3){beta}-D-glucan test as an aid to early diagnosis of invasive fungal infections following lung transplantation

The Fungitell assay for (1,3)β-D-glucan (BG) detection in serum has been evaluated in patients with invasive fungal infections (IFIs) and healthy controls and for the early diagnosis of IFI in cancer patients. We evaluated the BG assay for the detection of IFI in lung transplant recipients. Serial serum samples were prospectively collected from patients undergoing lung transplants at Duke Hospital. Fungal infections were classified according to revised European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Mycoses Study Group criteria. A receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve was generated; possible causes for false-positive and false-negative tests were investigated by linear regression analysis. Seven hundred fifty-six serum specimens from 59 subjects without IFI and 41 specimens from 14 patients with proven or probable IFI were tested. The area under the ROC curve was 0.69. Based on a 60-pg/ml positive cutoff, per-patient sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) were 64%, 9%, 14%, and 50%, respectively; per-test estimates were 71%, 59%, 9%, and 97%, respectively. The majority (92%) of patients not diagnosed with an IFI had at least one BG level of ≥60 pg/ml, and 90% had at least one BG level of ≥80 pg/ml. Respiratory colonization with mold and hemodialysis significantly affected mean BG levels. In conclusion, the accuracy of the BG test is marginal and its utility as a tool for the early diagnosis of IFI is questionable in the lung transplant population. Although the NPV of the BG test is high, the low PPV limits its utility as a screening tool for early diagnosis of IFI.

Critical stages of extracting DNA from Aspergillus fumigatus in whole-blood specimens

A standardized protocol for extracting DNA from Aspergillus fumigatus has been proposed by the European Aspergillus PCR Initiative (EAPCRI). Using meta-regression analysis, the EAPCRI showed certain stages of the process to be critical to providing a satisfactory analytical sensitivity. The study investigated each step of the EAPCRI protocol by elimination and monitored the influence on Aspergillus PCR performance.

Mucormycosis, pseudallescheriasis, and other uncommon mold infections

Serious infections due to non-Aspergillus molds are being encountered with increasing frequency. Factors likely responsible for the rise of these infections include aging populations in countries with advanced medical technologies, the resultant increase in incidence of many cancers, increasingly intensive myeloablative therapies for these cancers, increasingly intensive care for critically ill patients, and increases in the frequency of solid organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Although diagnostic and therapeutic modalities have improved, mortality rates for invasive mold infections remain high. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about non-Aspergillus mold infections of the chest, with a focus on risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment.

[Mycoserology--did we move on? Aspergillus]

Diseases caused by Aspergillus spp. are difficult to diagnose and thus require supplementary serological assays. This is the result of a selective review of the relevant literature with special regard to recent guidelines. In addition to conventional diagnostic tools (radiology, microscopy, culture) the measurement of the following serological markers is recommended, depending on the clinical type of aspergillosis: Invasive and chronic necrotising aspergillosis: Aspergillus-galactomannan antigen. Test format: EIA using the rat MAb EB-A2. Cut-off 0.5 (index). Monitoring of high risk patients: Twice weekly. Aspergillus-IgG (test format EIA) as confirmatory assay after recovery of the leukocyte function under therapy. Aspergilloma: Aspergillus IgG. Test format: EIA. Allergical aspergillosis: Aspergillus IgE. Test format: RAST. Galactomannan antigen detection rates high in the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. The evaluation of Aspergillus nucleic acid amplification assays is pending.

Clinical efficacy and safety of primary antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole vs itraconazole in allogeneic blood and marrow transplantation

Posaconazole has been recently approved for primary antifungal prophylaxis in patients with prolonged neutropenia after AML induction chemotherapy and patients with GVHD. We now present the first experience of the efficacy and safety of posaconazole during the early phase of post-allogeneic BMT (n=33; from June 2007), in comparison with itraconazole primary prophylaxis (n=16; up to May 2007). More patients receiving posaconazole were T-cell depleted (P=0.003). Groups were otherwise comparable in terms of age, sex, disease, neutrophil engraftment, incidence of GVHD, use of unrelated donors and type of conditioning. Safety data as well as the incidence of fever (84%) and persistent fever (27%) during the 100-day treatment period were comparable for both antifungal agents. Patients receiving posaconazole had a lower cumulative incidence of proven or probable invasive fungal disease, as defined by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer criteria (0 vs 12%; P=0.04), which associated with a higher probability of fungal-free survival (91 vs 56%; P=0.003) and an improved probability of OS (91 vs 63%; P=0.011) compared with patients receiving itraconazole. Our single-centre experience suggests that antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole may lead to a better outcome than itraconazole for patients in the early high-risk neutropenic period after allogeneic BMT.

Invasive aspergillosis osteomyelitis in children--a case report and review of the literature

Immunocompromised patients are at high risk of secondary infection associated with high morbidity. In children these complications include fungal osteomyelitis due to continuous infiltration or hematogenous spread. The case of a 4-year-old boy is presented who developed lumbalgia and thigh pain during ongoing chemotherapy for acute lymphatic leukemia. MRI revealed infarct-like lesions in the femur and L5 vertebra, which were biopsied. The histologic diagnosis was consistent with angioinvasive aspergillosis. A multifocal osseous presentation has rarely been described in children and an overview of the literature is presented. Invasive aspergillosis is a rare complication to be considered in children with MRI-detected bony lesions of infarct-like appearance.

Early Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis in Neutropenic Patients. Comparison between Serum Galactomannan and Polymerase Chain Reaction

Background:

Invasive aspergillosis (IA) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in profoundly neutropenic patients, so early diagnosis is mandatory.

Aim:

Consecutive patients with hematological malignancies undergoing intensive chemotherapy were screened for IA with two different methods which were compared.

Methods:

From October 2000 to August 2003 we tested 1311 serum samples from 172 consecutive patients with a polymerase chain reaction assay and between April 2005 and April 2008 we tested 806 serum samples from 169 consecutive patients with a Galactomannan (GM) test. Bronchoalveolar (BAL) samples were obtained whenever the patient’s condition allowed and tested with either method.

Results:

The serum PCR assay had a sensitivity of 75.0% and a specificity of 91.9% and the serum GM assay had a sensitivity of 87.5% and a specificity of 93.1%, (P > 0.05). The presence of two or more consecutive positive serum samples was predictive of IA for both assays. BAL GM/PCR was positive in some patients without serum positivity and in patients with 2 or more positive serum GM/PCR.

Conclusions:

No significant differences between the 2 serum tests were found. The GM assay has the advantage of being standardized among several laboratories and is incorporated in the criteria established by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycosis Study Group (EORTC/MSG), however is much more expensive. BAL GM and PCR sampling aids in IA diagnosis but needs further validation studies to differentiate between colonization and true infection in cases where serum GM or PCR are negative.

Evaluation of species distribution and risk factors of candidemia: a multicenter case-control study

This study was planned to determine the risk factors of candidemia, and the most common Candida species causing bloodstream infections. A case-control study which included adult patients was conducted over a 1-year period at tertiary-care educational hospitals in Turkey. A total of 83 candidemia episodes were identified during the study period. Candida albicans was the most common species recovered (45.8%) followed by Candida tropicalis (24.1%) Candida parapsilosis (14.5%) and Candida glabrata which was isolated from only four (4.8%) patients. Presence of a urethral catheter (odds ratio [OR] 2.38; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.09-5.19; P = 0.02), previous use of antibiotics (OR 2.61; 95% CI 1.05-6.46; P = 0.03), RBC transfusions (OR 2.14; 95% CI 1.16-3.94; P = 0.01) and parenteral nutrition (OR 4.44; 95% CI 2.43-8.11; P < 0.01) were found as independent risk factors for candidemia. TPN (Total Parenteral Nutrition) was an independent risk factor for both C. albicans and non-Candida albicans Candida species (P < 0.001). Most of the risk factors were invasive procedures and former medications. We conclude that a great number of candidemia cases are preventable by means of reduction of unnecessary invasive procedures and the use of antimicrobials.

Therapeutic impact and diagnostic performance of multiplex PCR in patients with malignancies and suspected sepsis

OBJECTIVES

New molecular methods allow rapid pathogen detection in patients with sepsis, but their impact on treatment decisions remains to be established. We evaluated the therapeutic usefulness of multiplex PCR testing in patients with cancer and sepsis.

METHODS

110 patients with cancer and sepsis were included prospectively and underwent LightCycler® SeptiFast (LC-SF) multiplex PCR testing in addition to standard tests. Two independent panels of experts assessed the diagnosis in each patient based on medical record data; only one panel had the LC-SF results. The final diagnosis established by a third panel was the reference standard.

RESULTS

The final diagnosis was documented sepsis in 50 patients (55 microorganisms), undocumented sepsis in 54, and non-infectious disease in 6. LC-SF detected 17/32 pathogens recovered from blood cultures (BC) and 11/23 pathogens not recovered from BC; 12 microorganisms were detected neither by BC nor by LC-SF. LC-SF produced false-positive results in 10 cases. The LC-SF results would have significantly improved treatment in 11 (10%) patients and prompted immediate antimicrobial therapy not given initially in 3 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

In cancer patients with suspected sepsis, LC-SF detected 11/55 (20%) true pathogens not recovered from BCs and would have improved the initial management in 11/110 (10%) patients.

International retrospective analysis of 73 cases of invasive fusariosis treated with voriconazole

The outcomes for 73 invasive fusariosis patients treated with voriconazole were investigated. Patients with proven (n = 67) or probable (n = 6) infections were identified from the voriconazole clinical database (n = 39) and the French National Reference Center for Mycoses and Antifungals database (n = 34). Investigator-determined success was a complete or partial response. Survival was determined from day 1 of voriconazole therapy to the last day known alive. Patients were 2 to 79 years old (median, 43 years), and 66% were male. Identified Fusarium species (62%) were F. solani, F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum, and F. oxysporum. Underlying conditions analyzed included hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT; 18%), hematologic malignancy (HM; 60%), chronic immunosuppression (CI; 12%), or other condition (OC; 10%). Infection sites were brain (5%), disseminated excluding brain (67%), lungs/sinus (15%), and other (12%). Most patients (64%) were or had recently been neutropenic (<500 cells/mm(3)). Therapy duration was 1 to 480 days (median, 57 days), with a 47% success rate. Baseline neutropenia impacted success adversely (P ≤ 0.03). Success varied by underlying condition (HSCT, 38%; HM, 45%; CI, 44%; OC, 71%) and infection site (brain, 0%; disseminated, 45%; other, 56%; lung/sinus, 64%) (P > 0.05). Combination therapy (13 patients) was no better than treatment with voriconazole alone. Overall, 59% of the patients died (49% died of fusariosis), and 90-day survival was 42%. Site of infection influenced survival (P = 0.02). Median survival (in days) by species was as follows: F. solani, 213; F. oxysporum, 112; Fusarium spp., 101; F. proliferatum, 84; F. moniliforme, 76. We conclude that voriconazole is a therapeutic option for invasive fusariosis.

Invasive sinonasal disease due to dematiaceous fungi in immunocompromised individuals: case report and review of the literature

Invasive dematiaceous fungal sinusitis is an uncommon and aggressive disease in immunocompromised individuals. We report a unique case of invasive Exserohilum sinusitis in a pregnant, immunocompromised woman. After treating the woman with pregnancy-induced aplastic anemia and invasive Exserohilum sinusitis and pulmonary disease, we performed a Medline/PubMed review of invasive dematiaceous fungal sinonasal disease in immunocompromised individuals. Twelve cases of proven and one case of probable invasive sinonasal dematiaceous fungal disease in immunocompromised patients are reported in the English-language literature. The majority of patients had underlying hematological conditions. The crude mortality was high, with over half of the patients dying from presumed complications of the underlying immunosuppression. Successful outcomes were associated with surgical debridement, aggressive antifungal use, and a reduction of immunosuppression. The optimal treatment for immunocompromised patients with invasive dematiaceous fungal disease is not known. The role of newer triazoles, posaconazole and voriconazole, appears promising, however more clinical data are needed. Definitive diagnosis requires tissue biopsy and successful treatment is associated with reduction of immunosuppression, aggressive surgical debulking, and systemic antifungal therapy.

Therapeutic drug monitoring of posaconazole in hematology patients: experience with a new high-performance liquid chromatography-based method

Parallel administration of the proton pump inhibitor (PPI) esomeprazole has been shown to decrease oral bioavailability of posaconazole in healthy volunteers. We prospectively analyzed serum samples (n = 59) obtained from hematology patients (n = 27) under posaconazole prophylaxis. Patients treated concomitantly with pantoprazole had significantly lower posaconazole levels than patients without PPI treatment (median levels of 630 microg/liter versus 1,125 microg/liter, respectively). These results suggest that drug monitoring is relevant when posaconazole and pantoprazole are administered concomitantly.

Aspergillosis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: risk factors, prophylaxis, and treatment

This article discusses newer antifungal agents, recent randomized controlled trials, and the 2008 guidelines for treatment of aspergillosis in reference to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Strategies such as reduced-intensity conditioning and agents such as infliximab shed new light on aspergillosis risk. The association between Toll-like receptor polymorphisms and aspergillosis is an exciting development. Posaconazole was evaluated in two randomized prophylaxis trials, and a large, randomized trial established voriconazole's therapeutic superiority to amphotericin. However, many questions remain regarding which patients benefit most from prophylaxis; resistance to newer antifungals; and combination, salvage, and immunomodulatory therapies. Current therapies and strategies have improved the outlook of HSCT recipients with invasive aspergillosis. Future directions include increasingly sophisticated risk stratification, clinical testing of combination therapies, and adjunctive immunomodulatory therapies.

Invasive fungal disease in autosomal-dominant hyper-IgE syndrome

We demonstrate that autosomal-dominant STAT3 -deficient hyper-IgE syndrome confers late-onset susceptibility to molds, especially Aspergillus , despite preserved myeloid functions, in association with previous parenchymal lung damage (bronchiectasis/pneumatoceles). This suggests a critical role for non-hematopoietic processes in innate antifungal immunity in AD-HIES.

High incidence of false-positive Aspergillus galactomannan test in multiple myeloma

Invasive aspergillosis (IA) remains one of the most significant causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with hematological malignancies undergoing chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), mainly due to the difficulty in its early diagnosis. Monitoring of galactomannan (GM) antigen, an exoantigen of Aspergillus, in the blood by sandwich ELISA is a useful and noninvasive method for early diagnosis of IA. The GM test has a sensitivity of 67-100% with a specificity of 81-99% in neutropenic patients and allogeneic transplant recipients [1-3]. Although it has been widely used as a diagnostic criterion for IA [4,5], one of the major limitations of this assay is false-positivity, particularly in pediatric patients [1], patients with graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) [6,7], and those taking dietary GM [8,9] or fungus-derived antibiotics, such as piperacillin-tazobactam (PIPC/TAZ) [10-12].

Prophylaxis of invasive aspergillosis with voriconazole or caspofungin during building work in patients with acute leukemia

BACKGROUND

Invasive aspergillosis is a common life-threatening infection in patients with acute leukemia. The presence of building work near to hospital wards in which these patients are cared for is an important risk factor for the development of invasive aspergillosis. This study assessed the impact of voriconazole or caspofungin prophylaxis in patients undergoing induction chemotherapy for acute leukemia in a hematology unit exposed to building work.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This retrospective cohort study was carried out between June 2003 and January 2006 during which building work exposed patients to a persistently increased risk of invasive aspergillosis. This study compared the cumulative incidence of invasive aspergillosis in patients who did or did not receive primary antifungal prophylaxis. The diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis was based on the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Mycosis Study Group criteria.

RESULTS

Two-hundred and fifty-seven patients (213 with acute myeloid leukemia, 44 with acute lymphocytic leukemia) were included. The mean age of the patients was 54 years and the mean duration of their neutropenia was 21 days. Eighty-eight received antifungal prophylaxis, most with voriconazole (n=74). The characteristics of the patients who did or did not receive prophylaxis were similar except that pulmonary antecedents (chronic bronchopulmonary disorders or active tobacco use) were more frequent in the prophylaxis group. Invasive aspergillosis was diagnosed in 21 patients (12%) in the non-prophylaxis group and four (4.5%) in the prophylaxis group (P=0.04). Pulmonary antecedents, neutropenia at diagnosis and acute myeloid leukemia with high-risk cytogenetics were positively correlated with invasive aspergillosis, whereas primary prophylaxis was negatively correlated. Survival was similar in both groups. No case of zygomycosis was observed. The 3-month mortality rate was 28% in patients with invasive aspergillosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that antifungal prophylaxis with voriconazole could be useful in acute leukemia patients undergoing first remission-induction chemotherapy in settings in which there is a high-risk of invasive aspergillosis.

[Primary cutaneous aspergillosis complicated with invasive aspergillosis in an extremely preterm infant: case report and literature review]

Aspergillus is a ubiquitous fungus that can cause primary cutaneous aspergillosis in extremely low-birth-weight (ELBW) neonates, then be invasive and lead to death. ELBW neonates are particularly at risk because of decreased qualitative immune defenses and defects in the skin barrier. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy and corticosteroids, often used in these patients, contribute to increased risk. We present a fatal case of primary cutaneous aspergillosis complicated with invasive aspergillosis, confirmed by autopsy, in an ELBW infant. The source of contamination was probably non-sterile disposable latex gloves used for neonatal care. The early recognition of this source led to its eviction for other hospitalized ELBW infants and no outbreak was observed.

Fungal infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Despite that epidemiology of IFIs has changed notably by evolution in transplantation procedures as well as preventative strategies, the attributable mortality still remains high, mainly because of delayed initiation of treatment due to its diagnostic difficulty. Hence high-resolution computed tomography and non-culture based adjunctive diagnostic tests such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for galactomannan and (1,3)-beta-D: -glucan have been incorporated into clinical practice, and global antifungal prophylaxis has been applied particularly to high-risk patients. Newer mold-active agents with higher efficacy and lower toxicity are currently being introduced as prophylaxis, and the combination of these agents are being evaluated as salvage therapy. This review summarizes recent advances in the diagnosis and management of IFIs in HSCT recipients. Further improvement of clinical outcome will be achieved by optimizing diagnostic, prophylactic and therapeutic approach based on individual patient's risk and situation.

Anti-Aspergillus human host defence relies on type 1 T helper (Th1), rather than type 17 T helper (Th17), cellular immunity

Both interferon-gamma-producing type 1 T helper (Th1)- and interleukin-17 (IL-17)-producing Th17 cells have been proposed to be involved in anti-fungal host defence. Although invasive aspergillosis is one of the most severe human fungal infections, little is known regarding the relative importance of the Th1 versus Th17 cellular immune pathways for the human anti-Aspergillus host defence. Using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and a system consisting of monocyte-derived macrophages with lymphocytes, we found that Aspergillus fumigatus is a weak inducer of human IL-17 but induces a strong Th1 response. These data were validated by the very low IL-17 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and serum of patients with invasive aspergillosis. Surprisingly, live A. fumigatus reduced IL-17 production induced by mitogenic stimuli. This effect was mediated through the propensity of A. fumigatus to metabolize tryptophan and release kynurenine, which modulates the inflammatory response through inhibition of IL-17 production. In conclusion, A. fumigatus does not stimulate production of IL-17 and human host defence against aspergillosis may not rely on potent Th17 responses.

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the diagnostic value of combined serological tests

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is increasing in frequency. We conducted this study to find out the approximate incidence of IPA in patients with acute exacerbation of COPD (AECOPD), and to determine whether using a combination of two tests (galactomannan [GM] antigen and 1,3-beta-glucan [BG] detection) would result in a more specific diagnosis of IPA.

METHODS

The study included 261 patients with AECOPD admitted over two years. The patients were categorized according to the modified definitions for IPA. GM antigen and BG were detected by the Platelia Aspergillus and Glucatell tests.

RESULTS

Two patients had proven IPA, three had probable IPA, and two had possible IPA. The rate of proven or probable IPA in patients with AECOPD was 1.91% (5/261). Four patients with proven and probable IPA had been treated with a systemic or inhaled corticosteroid before hospitalization and the typical symptoms and diagnostic signs of IPA were relatively less common in them. Mortality in patients with proven and probable IPA was 80%. The specificity of combined GM and BG detection was 98.8%.

CONCLUSION

Combining two serological tests increased the specificity of diagnosis but further trials are needed to prove the value of this approach.

Mycotic pulmonary artery aneurysm due to Aspergillus infection in a patient with leukemia: case report and review of the literature

We present a case of a patient with hairy cell leukemia and pulmonary aspergillosis who developed a cycotic pulmonary artery aneurysm despite prolonged antifungal therapy. A review of the literature in regards to incidence, etiology, clinical manifestations and treatment options is included.

Pulmonary aspergillosis: clinical presentation, diagnostic tests, management and complications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

When functioning properly, the immune system recognizes inhaled fungi and controls their growth, while avoiding injurious inflammation and allergy. 'Aspergillosis' represents a spectrum of clinical diseases resulting from impaired or excessive immune responses. Invasive aspergillosis is principally disease of severely immunocompromised patients, whereas allergic forms of aspergillosis result from an excessive inflammatory response to hyphae colonizing the sinopulmonary tract. We will review insights gained in host defense against Aspergillus species and the immunopathogenesis of Aspergillus-related diseases as well as important advances made in fungal diagnostics and antifungal therapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Important advances have been made in diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis and in antifungal agents. Voriconazole was superior to amphotericin B deoxycholate as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis. There is significant interest in combination antifungal therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Fungal genomics offers a powerful opportunity to gain knowledge about fungal virulence factors that can be targets for drug development. In addition, new insights have been gained regarding host defense against Aspergillus species that may be exploited therapeutically.

SUMMARY

We have gained substantial knowledge regarding how the immune system recognizes inhaled fungi and calibrates the inflammatory response. There has also been substantial progress in tools to diagnose aspergillosis and in antifungal therapeutics. Future progress will likely involve the development of more refined diagnostic tools, new classes of antifungal agents, and greater knowledge of pathogen and host factors that predispose to aspergillosis.

Primary antifungal prophylaxis in adult hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: current therapeutic concepts

In recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplants (HSCTs), the mortality associated with invasive fungal infections (IFIs) remains high, despite the introduction of broad-spectrum antifungal agents over the past 2 decades. Preventing exposure to fungal pathogens in this population is impossible; therefore, clinicians have focused on prophylactic use of antifungal agents to prevent IFIs in high-risk HSCT recipients. It is important to target antifungal prophylaxis by type of HSCT (autologous or allogeneic), local epidemiology, and risk factors for IFIs so that patients can receive the most appropriate agent while balancing costs and the risks of toxicity, and minimizing the development of resistance. To assist clinicians in weighing the pros and cons of currently available antifungal agents when choosing a suitable prophylactic regimen, we provide a review of several key prospective randomized trials that evaluated various antifungal agents for primary prophylaxis in adult HSCT recipients. In addition, we describe the epidemiology of and risk factors for IFIs in HSCT recipients, the difficulties in diagnosing IFIs, antifungal agents used for prophylaxis, and the goals of primary prophylaxis. Fluconazole remains the gold standard for primary prophylaxis in autologous HSCT recipients. For allogeneic HSCT recipients, the agent chosen for prophylaxis must be based on the patient's risk factors for IFIs. In low-risk patients, fluconazole is an appropriate agent to use for primary prophylaxis immediately after transplantation. However, in allogeneic HSCT recipients who develop complications, such as graft failure, graft-versus-host disease, or cytomegalovirus infection, prophylaxis with a mould-active agent should be used.

Candidemia and invasive candidiasis: a review of the literature for the burns surgeon

Advances in critical care, operative techniques, early fluid resuscitation, antimicrobials to control bacterial infections, nutritional support to manage the hypermetabolic response and early wound excision and coverage has improved survival rates in major burns patients. These advances in management have been associated with increased recognition of invasive infections caused by Candida species in critically ill burns patients. Candida albicans is the most common species to cause invasive Candida infections, however, non-albicans Candida species appear to becoming more frequent. These later species may be less fluconazole susceptible than Candida albicans. High crude and attributable mortality rates from invasive Candida sepsis are multi-factorial. Diagnosis of invasive candidiasis and candidemia remains difficult. Prophylactic and pre-emptive therapies appear promising strategies, but there is no specific approach which is well-studied and clearly efficacious in high-risk burns patients. Treatment options for invasive candidiasis include several amphotericin B formulations and newer less toxic antifungal agents, such as azoles and echinocandins. We review the currently available data on diagnostic and management strategies for invasive candidiasis and candidemia; whenever possible providing reference to the high-risk burn patients. We also present an algorithm for the management of candidemia and invasive candidiasis in burn patients.

Diagnostic value of PCR analysis of bacteria and fungi from blood in empiric-therapy-resistant febrile neutropenia

This study aimed to assess the clinical utility of PCR for the analysis of bacteria and fungi from blood for the management of febrile neutropenic patients with hematologic malignancies. Using a PCR system able to detect a broad range of bacteria and fungi, we conducted a prospective pilot study of periodic analyses of blood from patients following intensive chemotherapy. When fever occurred, it was treated with empirical antibiotic therapy, basically without knowledge of the PCR results. In 23 febrile episodes during the neutropenic period, bacteria were detected by PCR in 11 cases, while the same species were identified by blood culture in 3 cases. In 10 out of 11 PCR-positive cases, fever could be managed by empirical therapy. In the empirical-therapy-resistant case, the identification of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia by PCR led to improvement of fever. No fungi were detected by PCR in febrile cases, while Aspergillus fumigatus was detected in one afebrile patient, several days before a clinical diagnosis was made. In subsequent sporadic PCR analyses in 15 cases of febrile neutropenia, bacteria were detected by both PCR and blood culture in 7 cases and by PCR alone in 6. Fungi were not detected. While fever was improved by empirical therapy in 12 out of the 13 PCR-positive cases, the identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by PCR in one therapy-resistant case contributed to the successful treatment of persistent fever. Our results indicate that PCR analysis of bacteria from blood provides essential information for managing empirical-therapy-resistant febrile neutropenia.

Increasing incidence of candidaemia: long-term epidemiological trends, Queensland, Australia, 1999-2008

Given variability in the epidemiology of candidaemia and a relative paucity of contemporary longitudinal data, a passive laboratory-based surveillance study was performed to assess the epidemiology of candidaemia in all public healthcare facilities in Queensland, Australia over the period 1999-2008. Demographic and microbiological data on all candidaemia episodes, together with appropriate denominators (admissions and patient-days), were collected from laboratory and administrative information systems. From 1999 to 2008, 1137 episodes occurred (overall incidence-density: 0.45 per 10 000 patient-days) with a 3.5-fold increase in density (P<0.0001 for trend). Candidaemia episodes originating in traditional high-risk areas either decreased (haemato-oncology and paediatric wards) or remained stable (intensive care units). Episodes on adult medical/surgical wards increased significantly over time, accounting for 60% of the total by 2008. The relative proportion caused by Candida albicans decreased and Candida parapsilosis increased (both P<0.01). The proportion of fluconazole-resistant isolates did not change. The increasing occurrence of candidaemia outside traditional high-risk areas and the emergence of C. parapsilosis present new challenges for preventive and early intervention strategies.

Molecular detection and identification of zygomycetes species from paraffin-embedded tissues in a murine model of disseminated zygomycosis: a collaborative European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Fungal Infection Study Group (EFISG) evaluation

The present study was performed to assess the interlaboratory reproducibility of the molecular detection and identification of species of Zygomycetes from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded kidney and brain tissues obtained from experimentally infected mice. Animals were infected with one of five species (Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizopus microsporus, Lichtheimia corymbifera, Rhizomucor pusillus, and Mucor circinelloides). Samples with 1, 10, or 30 slide cuts of the tissues were prepared from each paraffin block, the sample identities were blinded for analysis, and the samples were mailed to each of seven laboratories for the assessment of sensitivity. A protocol describing the extraction method and the PCR amplification procedure was provided. The internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region was amplified by PCR with the fungal universal primers ITS1 and ITS2 and sequenced. As negative results were obtained for 93% of the tissue specimens infected by M. circinelloides, the data for this species were excluded from the analysis. Positive PCR results were obtained for 93% (52/56), 89% (50/56), and 27% (15/56) of the samples with 30, 10, and 1 slide cuts, respectively. There were minor differences, depending on the organ tissue, fungal species, and laboratory. Correct species identification was possible for 100% (30 cuts), 98% (10 cuts), and 93% (1 cut) of the cases. With the protocol used in the present study, the interlaboratory reproducibility of ITS sequencing for the identification of major Zygomycetes species from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues can reach 100%, when enough material is available.

Primary antifungal prophylaxis in acute myeloblastic leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome--still an open question?

In this review, we aim to compare different early treatment strategies of invasive fungal diseases in patients undergoing induction chemotherapy for acute myelogenous leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome. Three treatment approaches--prophylactic, empiric, and preemptive treatment--are subject to continuous discussion among physicians treating patients at risk. Considering the available clinical basis of evidence, we opt for antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole 200 mg tid po as our primary prophylactic strategy, while the employment of preemptive treatment should be delayed until more accurate diagnostic tools become available. In addition to antifungal prophylaxis, empiric treatment with caspofungin or L-AmB may be administered to patients with fever resistant to broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment and without radiographic findings typical of invasive fungal disease.