Functional gold nanorods: synthesis, self-assembly, and sensing applications

Enhanced-fluorescence correlation spectroscopy at micro-molar dye concentration around a single gold nanorod

Field enhancement by a single gold nanorod enables μM dye solution FCS (red). The solution itself gives no signal (green).

Surface-initiated controlled radical polymerizations from silica nanoparticles, gold nanocrystals, and bionanoparticles

This review summarizes recent progress in surface-initiated controlled radical polymerizations from silica nanoparticles, gold nanocrystals, and bionanoparticles.

Developing an aqueous approach for synthesizing Au and M@Au (M = Pd, CuPt) hybrid nanostars with plasmonic properties

A general route for controllably synthesizing Au-based nanostars was developed in an aqueous solution containing CTAB and ethanolamine.

Colorimetric detection of glutathione based on transverse overgrowth of high aspect ratio gold nanorods investigated by MCR-ALS

In this paper, we present a simple platform for colorimetric detection of glutathione using gold nanorods (AR ∼ 6.5 ± 0.2) as a plasmonic sensor.

Hydrogelation of bile acid–peptide conjugates and in situ synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles in the hydrogel matrix

A number of bile acid–peptide conjugates were synthesized and their hydrogelation properties were studied. These gels were used as scaffolds to in situ make Ag and Au nanoparticle–gel hybrids.

Au encapsulated into Al-MCM-41 mesoporous material: in situ synthesis and electronic structure

A facile one-step technique is proposed for the successful synthesis of highly ordered Au/Al-MCM-41. The charge state of Au³⁺ in the mesoporous framework was partially reduced due to the accompanying Al when clay was used as source.

Ag-embedded MnO nanorod: facile synthesis and oxygen reduction

TEM images of as-prepared nanocomposites under a Ag/Mn molar ratio of 1/200. Inset in (b): HR-TEM image taken from image (b); inset in (c): SAED pattern taken from one individual nanorod.

Facile, fine post-tuning of the longitudinal absorption wavelengths of pre-synthesized gold nanorods by introducing sulfide additives

The longitudinal absorption wavelength of pre-synthesized gold nanorods is precisely tuned by introducing controlled amounts of sulfide additives, which allows a powerful second chance to adjust the absorption wavelength of gold nanorods.

Nanostructured hexahedron of bismuth ferrite clusters: delicate synthesis processes and an efficient multiplex catalyst for organic pollutant degradation

(1) Synthesis: an evolution mechanism of NSCC-Bi₂Fe₄O₉viaa delicate synthesis processes; (2) application: visible-light photo-Fenton oxidation for organic pollutant removal and (3) multiplex catalysis: its catalytic mechanism in light or dark conditions.

Nanocomposite hydrogels based on liquid crystalline brush-like block copolymer–Au nanorods and their application in H2O2 detection

The nanocomposite hydrogel from liquid crystalline brush-like block copolymers and gold nanorods is developed, which is used to develop a simple and reproducible method to detect H₂O₂.

Feedback-driven self-assembly of symmetry-breaking optical metamaterials in solution

Thermodynamically driven self-assembly offers a direct route to organize individual nanoscopic components into three-dimensional structures over a large scale. The most thermodynamically favourable configurations, however, may not be ideal for some applications. In plasmonics, for instance, nanophotonic constructs with non-trivial broken symmetries can display optical properties of interest, such as Fano resonance, but are usually not thermodynamically favoured. Here, we present a self-assembly route with a feedback mechanism for the bottom-up synthesis of a new class of symmetry-breaking optical metamaterials. We self-assemble plasmonic nanorod dimers with a longitudinal offset that determines the degree of symmetry breaking and its electromagnetic response. The clear difference in plasmonic resonance profiles of nanorod dimers in different configurations enables high spectra selectivity. On the basis of this plasmonic signature, our self-assembly route with feedback mechanism promotes the assembly of desired metamaterial structures through selective excitation and photothermal disassembly of unwanted assemblies in solution. In this fashion, our method can selectively reconfigure and homogenize the properties of the dimer, leading to highly monodispersed aqueous metamaterials with tailored symmetries and electromagnetic responses.

Oxadiazole-2-thiol adsorption on gold nanorods: a joint theoretical and experimental study by using SERS, XPS, and DFT

The chemisorption of 1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiol (ODT) on gold nanorods has been investigated by using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and density functional theory (DFT). Although most of the SERS spectra have remarkable similarity to the normal Raman spectra of the pure analyte, the adsorption of ODT on a gold surface leads to a drastic change in its Raman spectrum and distinct vibrational features are obtained with gold nanorods and spherical nanoparticles. Simulated Raman spectra for hybrid systems that consist of an oxadiazole moiety coordinated to a Au20 gold cluster provided valuable information about the coordination mode and enabled us to assign vibration modes.

Facile synthesis of gold nanoworms with a tunable length and aspect ratio through oriented attachment of nanoparticles

We report a seedless protocol based on the oriented attachment of nanoparticles for the synthesis of Au nanoworms (NWs). NWs are grown by reducing HAuCl4 with ascorbic acid (AA) in high pH reaction medium and in the presence of growth directional agents, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and AgNO3. Although we have used the same reducing and growth directional agents as typically used for the synthesis of Au nanorods, the growth mechanism of NWs is markedly different from that of nanorods. Instead of the anisotropic growth of seed particles, the NWs grow through oriented attachment of nanoparticles. By varying different reaction parameters we have seen that the length of NWs can be controlled from tens of nanometers to a micrometer. Furthermore, the aspect ratio (AR) can be tuned from 2 to 30. This is almost the whole range of AR and length for Au nanorods so far achieved with seed-mediated multiple step synthesis protocols.

Germanium microflower-on-nanostem as a high-performance lithium ion battery electrode

We demonstrate a new design of Ge-based electrodes comprising three-dimensional (3-D) spherical microflowers containing crystalline nanorod networks on sturdy 1-D nanostems directly grown on a metallic current collector by facile thermal evaporation. The Ge nanorod networks were observed to self-replicate their tetrahedron structures and form a diamond cubic lattice-like inner network. After etching and subsequent carbon coating, the treated Ge nanostructures provide good electrical conductivity and are resistant to gradual deterioration, resulting in superior electrochemical performance as anode materials for LIBs, with a charge capacity retention of 96% after 100 cycles and a high specific capacity of 1360 mA h g(-1) at 1 C and a high-rate capability with reversible capacities of 1080 and 850 mA h g(-1) at the rates of 5 and 10 C, respectively. The improved electrochemical performance can be attributed to the fast electron transport and good strain accommodation of the carbon-filled Ge microflower-on-nanostem hybrid electrode.

Assembling single gold nanorods into large-scale highly aligned nanoarrays via vacuum-enhanced capillarity

We report a simple, straightforward, and efficient approach to assemble single gold nanorods (AuNRs) into highly aligned arrays, via a unique vacuum-enhanced capillarity. The assembled AuNR arrays demonstrate both an excellently unidirectional ordering and a wonderful single-rod resolution. The key role of vacuum in this approach enables high-aspect-ratio (10 to 22) AuNR alignment and efficiently facilitates large-area alignment. Further investigation of one- and two-dimensional AuNR arrays would undoubtedly be beneficial to their potential applications.

Multifunctional gold nanorods for siRNA gene silencing and photothermal therapy

Cancer is a complex disease that usually requires several treatment modalities. A multifunctional nanotherapeutic system is designed, incorporating small interfering RNA (siRNA) and gold nanorods (Au NRs) for photothermal therapy. Surface-engineered Au NRs with polyethylenimine are synthesized using a layer-by-layer assembly and siRNA is absorbed on the surface. The siRNA is efficiently delivered into breast cancer cells, resulting in subsequent gene silencing. Cells are then irradiated with near-infrared (NIR) light, causing heat-induced anticancer activity. The combination of gene silencing and photothermal therapy results in effective inhibition of cell proliferation.

Plasmonic library based on substrate-supported gradiential plasmonic arrays

We present a versatile approach to produce macroscopic, substrate-supported arrays of plasmonic nanoparticles with well-defined interparticle spacing and a continuous particle size gradient. The arrays thus present a "plasmonic library" of locally noncoupling plasmonic particles of different sizes, which can serve as a platform for future combinatorial screening of size effects. The structures were prepared by substrate assembly of gold-core/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-shell particles and subsequent post-modification. Coupling of the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) could be avoided since the polymer shell separates the encapsulated gold cores. To produce a particle array with a broad range of well-defined but laterally distinguishable particle sizes, the substrate was dip-coated in a growth solution, which resulted in an overgrowth of the gold cores controlled by the local exposure time. The kinetics was quantitatively analyzed and found to be diffusion rate controlled, allowing for precise tuning of particle size by adjusting the withdrawal speed. We determined the kinetics of the overgrowth process, investigated the LSPRs along the gradient by UV-vis extinction spectroscopy, and compared the spectroscopic results to the predictions from Mie theory, indicating the absence of local interparticle coupling. We finally discuss potential applications of these substrate-supported plasmonic particle libraries and perspectives toward extending the concept from size to composition variation and screening of plasmonic coupling effects.

Probing, Sensing, and Fluorescence Enhancement with Single Gold Nanorods

Gold nanorods with dimensions around 10-100 nm present original optical properties. Their main advantages are the tunability from 600 to 1000 nm of their main absorption band, and its high intensity, stemming from the good conducting properties of gold in this spectral range. Gold nanorods have been applied to tracking, probing, sensing, and manipulation experiments. Here, we discuss experiments done with single gold nanorods with emphasis on recent results from our group.

Pt@Au nanorods uniformly decorated on pyridyne cycloaddition graphene as a highly effective electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction

Preparing metal-supported graphene nanocomposites is both interesting and challenging because of their well-defined morphologies and have potential application for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Here, we present an easy approach to synthesizing a novel hybrid material composed of Pt@Au nanorods (NRs) uniformly dispersed on the pyridyne cycloaddition of graphene (Pt@Au-PyNG), and the material serves as a high-performance catalyst for ORR. This hybrid electrocatalyst significantly decreases the use of Pt by using Pt dispersed on Au NRs and shows a markedly high activity toward ORR. The resulting Pt@Au-PyNG hybrid displayed comparable electrocatalytic activity and better stability than commercial Pt/C in alkaline solutions toward ORR. The hybrid effectively blocks CO formation to increase catalyst resistance to CO poisoning, thereby decreasing the amount of Pt needed. Free-energy diagrams for ORR on Pt@Au (111) through dissociative and associative mechanisms show that OH or O hydrogenation is the rate-limiting step based on DFT calculations.

Metal/Semiconductor hybrid nanostructures for plasmon-enhanced applications

Hybrid nanostructures composed of semiconductor and plasmonic metal components are receiving extensive attention. They display extraordinary optical characteristics that are derived from the simultaneous existence and close conjunction of localized surface plasmon resonance and semiconduction, as well as the synergistic interactions between the two components. They have been widely studied for photocatalysis, plasmon-enhanced spectroscopy, biotechnology, and solar cells. In this review, the developments in the field of (plasmonic metal)/semiconductor hybrid nanostructures are comprehensively described. The preparation of the hybrid nanostructures is first presented according to the semiconductor type, as well as the nanostructure morphology. The plasmonic properties and the enabled applications of the hybrid nanostructures are then elucidated. Lastly, possible future research in this burgeoning field is discussed.

Surface asymmetry of coated spherical nanoparticles

We validate the nonspherical grafting arrangement of isotropically coated spherical nanoparticles as very recently proposed. We utilize localized surface plasmon resonance enhanced dynamic polarized and depolarized light scattering from Au nanoparticles, the spherical symmetry of which was revealed by single-particle dark-field spectroscopy. The same Au nanospheres are grafted with ligands of different chemistry and length. The wavelength dependent depolarization ratio and the two transport coefficients of these nanoparticles, obtained from the dynamic light scattering experiment, can only be reconciled with the TEM data, the single UV/vis extinction spectrum, and the dark-field spectroscopy experiments if their coating is described as asymmetric. Spatially anisotropic graft distribution on spherical nanoparticles impacts their assembly and understanding its origin will help control the structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites.

A new silver nanorod SPR probe for detection of trace benzoyl peroxide

The stable silver nanorod (AgNR) sol in red was prepared by the two-step procedure of NaBH₄-H₂O₂ and citrate heating reduction. The AgNR had a transverse and a longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption peak at 338 nm and 480 nm. Meanwhile, two transverse and longitudinal SPR Rayleigh scattering (SPR-RS) peaks at 340 nm and 500 nm were observed firstly using common fluorescence spectrometer. The SPR absorption, RS, surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and electron microscope technology were used to study the formation mechanism of red silver nanorods and the SERS enhancement mechanism of nano-aggregation. The AgNR-BPO SPR absorption and AgNR-NaCl-BPO SPR-RS analytical systems were studied to develop two new simple, rapid, and low-cost SPR methods for the detection of trace BPO.

Nanoparticles for hyperthermic therapy: synthesis strategies and applications in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and most aggressive malignant primary brain tumor in humans. Current GBM treatment includes surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, sometimes supplemented with novel therapies. Despite recent advances, survival of GBM patients remains poor. Major challenges in GBM treatment are drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier, restriction of damage to healthy brain tissues, and limitation of resistance to therapies. This article reviews recent advances in the application of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), gold nanorods (GNRs), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for hyperthermia ablation of GBM. First, the article introduces GBM, its current treatment, and hyperthermia as a potential modality for the management of GBM. Second, it introduces MNPs, GNRs, and CNTs as inorganic agents to induce hyperthermia in GBM. Third, it discusses different methodologies for synthesis of each inorganic agent. Finally, it reviews in vitro and in vivo studies in which MNPs, GNRs, and CNTs have been applied for hyperthermia ablation and drug delivery in GBM.

Resonant plasmonic enhancement of single-molecule fluorescence by individual gold nanorods

Enhancing the fluorescence of a weak emitter is important to further extend the reach of single-molecule fluorescence imaging to many unexplored systems. Here we study fluorescence enhancement by isolated gold nanorods and explore the role of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) on the observed enhancements. Gold nanorods can be cheaply synthesized in large volumes, yet we find similar fluorescence enhancements as literature reports on lithographically fabricated nanoparticle assemblies. The fluorescence of a weak emitter, crystal violet, can be enhanced more than 1000-fold by a single nanorod with its SPR at 629 nm excited at 633 nm. This strong enhancement results from both an excitation rate enhancement of ∼130 and an effective emission enhancement of ∼9. The fluorescence enhancement, however, decreases sharply when the SPR wavelength moves away from the excitation laser wavelength or when the SPR has only a partial overlap with the emission spectrum of the fluorophore. The reported measurements of fluorescence enhancement by 11 nanorods with varying SPR wavelengths are consistent with numerical simulations.

Aspect-Ratio Effect of Nanorod Compatibilizers in Conducting Polymer Blends

Nanoparticles (NPs) at the interface between two different polymer blends or fluid mixtures can function as compatibilizers, thereby dramatically improving the interfacial properties of the blends or the fluid mixtures. Their compatibilizing ability is strongly dependent on their size, shape, and aspect ratios (ARs), which determines their adsorption energy to the interface as well as their entropic penalty when they are being strongly segregated at the interface. Herein, we investigated the effect of the ARs of nanorod surfactants on the conducting polymer blend of poly(triphenylamine) (PTPA) templated by polystyrene (PS) colloids. The lengths of the polymer-coated CuPt nanorods (CuPt NRs) were 5, 15, and 32 nm with a fixed width of 5 nm, thus producing three different AR values of 1, 3, and 6, respectively. For quantitative analysis, the morphological and electrical behaviors of the polymer blends were investigated in terms of the volume fraction and AR of the NRs. The dramatic change in the morphological and electrical properties of the blend film was observed for all three NR surfactants at the NR volume fraction of approximately 1 vol %. Therefore, NR surfactants with larger ARs had better compatibilizing power for a given number of NRs in the blends. Also, they exhibited a stronger tendency to be aligned parallel to the PS/PTPA interface. Also, we demonstrated the successful use of the NR surfactants in the fabrication of conducting polymer blend film that requires only minimal concentrations of conducting polymers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an experiment on the AR effect of NR compatibilizers in polymer blends.

Shape-dependent dispersion and alignment of nonaggregating plasmonic gold nanoparticles in lyotropic and thermotropic liquid crystals

We use both lyotropic liquid crystals composed of prolate micelles and thermotropic liquid crystals made of rod-like molecules to uniformly disperse and unidirectionally align relatively large gold nanorods and other complex-shaped nanoparticles at high concentrations. We show that some of these ensuing self-assembled orientationally ordered soft matter systems exhibit polarization-dependent plasmonic properties with strongly pronounced molar extinction exceeding that previously achieved in self-assembled composites. The long-range unidirectional alignment of gold nanorods is mediated mainly by anisotropic surface anchoring interactions at the surfaces of gold nanoparticles. Polarization-sensitive absorption, scattering, and extinction are used to characterize orientations of nanorods and other nanoparticles. The experimentally measured unique optical properties of these composites, which stem from the collective plasmonic effect of the gold nanorods with long-range order in a liquid crystal matrix, are reproduced in computer simulations. A simple phenomenological model based on anisotropic surface interaction explains the alignment of gold nanorods dispersed in liquid crystals and the physical underpinnings behind our observations.

CdS nanoscale photodetectors

CdS nanostructures have received much attention in recent years as building blocks for optoelectronic devices due to their unique physical and chemical properties. This progress report provides an overview of recent research about rational design of CdS nanoscale photodetectors. Three kinds of photodetectors according to the metal-semiconductor contact types are discussed in detail: Ohmic contact, Schottky contact, and field enhanced transistor configuration. The focus is on the tuning of optical and electrical properties CdS nanostructures by element doping, composition and bandgap engineering, and heterojunction integration, along with thus modified device performances generated during these tuning processes. Latest concepts of photodetector design such as flexible, self-powered, plasmonic, and piezophototronic photodetectors with novel properties are introduced to demonstrate the future directions of such an exciting research field.

One-pot synthesis of gold nanorods using binary surfactant systems with improved monodispersity, dimensional tunability and plasmon resonance scattering properties

A facile seedless growth method for high-yield synthesis of monodisperse gold nanorods using binary surfactant mixtures is reported for the first time. In comparison with other seedless methods, the present method enables the preparation of gold nanorods with much better monodispersity. Moreover, the present seedless growth method enables the preparation of not only thin gold nanorods but also thick gold nanorods which cannot be prepared by other reported seedless methods. Dark-field microscopy measurements of a single gold nanorod indicate that the thicker gold nanorod shows enhanced scattering properties.

Where's the silver? Imaging trace silver coverage on the surface of gold nanorods

The development of the seeded growth synthesis for gold nanorods provided the first simple, convenient wet chemistry route to these nanomaterials. Over the past decade, the original silver-assisted seeded growth procedure has been the subject of further modifications that have continuously expanded access to anisotropic gold nanoparticles; however, the role of silver in formation of gold nanorods remains poorly understood. We report the first experimental evidence on the position of silver present on gold nanorods using advanced energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Our results indicate the deposition of silver ions on the surface shows no preference for a specific face or axis. Furthermore, we show that the "dog bone" structures developed from gold nanorod solutions show preferential deposition of silver atoms on the ends and in the crevices.

High yield seedless synthesis of high-quality gold nanocrystals with various shapes

In this Article, high-quality gold nanocrystals (Au NCs) with various shapes including concave cubic, trisoctahedral, cubic, rod-like, and quasi-spherical have been successfully produced in high yield via adding a trace amount of NaBH4 solution into growth solutions mainly composed of HAuCl4, ascorbic acid, and surfactants. The sizes and shapes of as-prepared Au NCs can be tuned by the compositions of the growth solutions and the amount of NaBH4 added. The electrocatalytic performance of differently shaped Au NCs for methanol oxidation was studied; as-prepared trisoctahedral or concave cubic Au NCs are more highly active electrocatalysts for methanol oxidation due to the presence of high-index facets on their surface.

Drug loaded multilayered gold nanorods for combined photothermal and chemotherapy

In this study, gold nanorods (AuNRs) were first stabilized by hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and then coated with two kinds of polyelectrolytes (PE) and BSA to obtain multi-layered AuNRs (AuNRs-PE-BSA). Furthermore, the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) was encapsulated into AuNRs-PE-BSA by the electrostatic force and the nanocomposites formed were named AuNRs/DOX-PE-BSA. The success of coating was verified by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zeta potential, gel-electrophoresis and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The MTT assay indicated that the cytotoxicity of AuNRs decreased dramatically after multi-layer capping. The time-dependent nucleus-targeting capability of AuNRs/DOX-PE-BSA was confirmed in cell affinity evaluations. The in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that AuNRs/DOX-PE-BSA, which combined photothermal and chemotherapy for tumor therapy, bears a markedly improved curative effect and holds promising prospects in the field of nanomedicine.

Extinction and extra-high depolarized light scattering spectra of gold nanorods with improved purity and dimension tunability: direct and inverse problems

The experimental depolarized light scattering ratio IVH/IVV of plasmonic nanorods is strongly decreased by a co-polarized contribution from impurity particles inevitably presented in suspensions fabricated by common seed-mediated methods with a single surfactant [typically, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)]. We used a binary NaOL (sodium oleate) + CTAB surfactant method (Ye et al., Nano Lett., 2013, 13, 555) to dramatically decrease the percentage of impurity particles in suspensions of as-prepared and overgrown nanorods without any separation procedures. The as-prepared nanorods demonstrated a very high ratio of longitudinal to transversal plasmonic maxima (of about 7) and an unprecedented, extra-high depolarized light scattering ratio IVH/IVV (of about 60%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first experimental demonstration of the depolarized light scattering ratio approaching the theoretical limit of 75%. The NaOL + CTAB growing solution was also used to increase the nanorod diameters and lengths by a controllable overgrowing process. Statistical TEM data for as-prepared and overgrown nanorods were used to solve a direct problem, i.e. for T-matrix simulation of the extinction and depolarized light scattering spectra. To solve an inverse problem, with the extinction peak wavelength and full width at half-maximum (FWHM) as the input parameters, we obtained calibration plots to quantify the aspect ratio distribution in terms of a simple two-parametric log-normal model. Simultaneous fitting of the T-matrix calculations of extinction and depolarized light scattering spectra to the experimental data enabled us to retrieve the aspect ratio distribution and the percentage of impurity particles, in excellent agreement with statistical estimations based on transmission electron microscopy images.

Protein immobilization in hollow nanostructures and investigation of the adsorbed protein behavior

Understanding nanomaterial-biomolecule interactions is critical to develop broad applications in sensors, devices, and therapeutics. During the past decade, in-depth studies have been performed on the effect of nanoscale surface topography on adsorbed protein structure and function. However, a fundamental understanding of nanobio interactions at concave surfaces is limited; the greatest challenge is to create a nanostructure that allows such interactions to occur and to be characterized. We have synthesized hollow nanocages (AuNG) through careful control of morphology and surface chemistry. Lysozyme was used as a model to probe interactions between a protein and these nanostructures. Solid Au nanoparticles with a similar morphology and surface chemistry were also used as a reference. Through a series of quantitative analyses of protein adsorption profiles and enzymatic activity assays of both nanobioconjugates, we discovered that a significant amount of protein could be delivered into the core of AuNG, while maintaining a substantial fraction of native activity.

Exploration of the growth process of ultrathin silica shells on the surface of gold nanorods by the localized surface plasmon resonance

Ultrathin silica coating (UTSC) has emerged as an effective way to improve the compatibility and stability of nanoparticles without attenuating their intrinsic optical properties. Exploration strategies to probe the growth process of ultrathin silica shells on the surface of nanoparticles would represent a valuable innovation that would benefit the development of ultrathin silica coated nanoparticles and their relevant applications. In this work, we report a unique, very effective and straightforward strategy for probing the growth of ultrathin silica shells on the surface of gold nanorods (Au NRs), which exploits the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) as a reporting signal. The thickness of the ultrathin silica shells on the surface of Au NRs can be quantitatively measured and predicted in the range of 0.5-3.5 nm. It is demonstrated that the LSPR shift accurately reflects the real-time change in the thickness of the ultrathin silica shells on Au NRs during the growth process. By using the developed strategy, we further analyze the growth of UTSC on the surface of Au NRs via feeding of Na2SiO3 in a stepwise manner. The responsiveness analysis of LSPR also provides important insight into the shielding effect of UTSC on the surface of Au NRs that is not accessible with conventional strategies. This LSPR-based strategy permits exploration of the surface-mediated sol-gel reactions of silica from a new point of view.

Self-assembly of gold nanorods into vertically aligned, rectangular microplates with a supercrystalline structure

Vertically aligned, supercrystalline microplates with a well-defined rectangular shape were fabricated in a large area through self-assembly of gold nanorods by a novel bulk solution evaporation method. This evaporative self-assembly strategy involving continuous movement of the contact line can prevent the coffee-ring effect, thus allowing uniform deposition of discrete GNR superstructures over a large area and favoring the formation of GNR supercrystals with geometrically symmetric shapes. A mechanism based on the continuing nucleation and growth of smectic GNR superstructures accompanying the movement of the contact line was put forward for the formation of the unique GNR supercrystal arrays. Based on this mechanism, a micropatterned substrate was designed to control the nucleation location and growth direction, leading to the spontaneous self-assembly of nearly parallel arrays of vertically aligned, supercrystalline microplates of GNRs. The obtained rectangular-plate-shaped GNR supercrystals exhibited interesting anisotropic optical reflection properties, which were revealed by polarized light microscopy.

Wet chemical synthesis of soluble gold nanogaps

A central challenge in molecular electronics is to create electrode pairs separated by only a few nanometers that can accommodate a single molecule of interest to be optically or electrically characterized while residing in the gap. Current techniques for nanogap fabrication are largely based on top-down approaches and often rely on subsequent deposition of molecules into the nanogap. In such an approach, the molecule may bridge the gap differently with each experiment due to variations at the metal-molecule interface. Conversely, chemists can readily synthesize gold nanorods (AuNRs) in aqueous solution. Through controlled end-to-end assembly of the AuNRs into dimers or chains, facilitated via target molecules, they can be used as electrical contacts. In this way, the preparation of AuNR-molecule-AuNR junctions by wet chemical methods may afford a large number of identical devices with little variation in the interface between molecule and electrode (AuNR). In this Account, we highlight recent progress in using chemically synthesized AuNRs as building blocks for molecular electronic applications. We outline the general synthesis and properties of AuNRs and describe the aqueous growth of dimeric AuNR structures from an insulating molecule linked to AuNR precursors (gold seeds). Conjugated, electronically active molecules are typically not soluble under the conditions required for the bottom-up growth of AuNRs. Therefore, we present a strategy that utilizes host-guest chemistry in order to make such π-systems compatible with the AuNR growth procedure. In order to electrically characterize the AuNR-molecule-AuNR constructs, we must transfer them onto a substrate and contact external electrodes. We discuss the implications of using electron-beam lithography for making this contact. In addition, we introduce a novel fabrication approach in which we can grow AuNR nanogap electrodes in situ on prepatterned substrates, thus circumventing post-processing steps that potentially damage the nanogap environment. Due to the inherent optical properties of AuNRs, electromagnetic field enhancement in the nanogaps lets us spectroscopically characterize the molecules via surface-enhanced Raman scattering. We discuss the incorporation of oligopeptides functionalized with acetylene units having uniquely identifiable vibrational modes. This acetylene moiety allows chemical reactions to be performed in the gaps via click chemistry, and the oligopeptide linking platform opens for integration of larger biological components.