Biomimetic chitosan-nanohydroxyapatite composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Hydroxyapatite-coated carboxymethyl chitosan scaffolds for promoting osteoblast and stem cell differentiation

The behavior of MC3T3 osteoblasts and human bone marrow stem cells on non-coated and hydroxyapatite (HAP)-coated carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) scaffolds was investigated in this study. Four HAP-coated scaffolds with different coating morphology and coverage were prepared by mineralization for 1week in four different mineralizing solutions. Viability, attachment, proliferation, and differentiation of the osteoblasts on these scaffolds were evaluated, and an osteogenic gene expression analysis was carried out to investigate the osteoblastic differentiation of the stem cells. No cytotoxic effects were observed with both the non-coated and coated scaffolds. The non-coated CMCS scaffold supports attachment, proliferation, and differentiation of the osteoblasts and directs stem cell differentiation to osteoblast. Coating the scaffold with HAP substantially enhances these effects on the osteoblasts and stem cells. The main improvement was in the late stage of osteoblast differentiation since osteoblastic differentiation of the osteoblasts and stem cells in this stage was significantly enhanced by the coatings regardless of the variation in morphology and coverage. On the other hand, high HAP coverage was beneficial in stimulating osteoblast attachment and proliferation. This study demonstrates the good potential of HAP-coated CMCS scaffolds as osteogenic scaffolds to stimulate bone healing.

Genetically-manipulated adult stem cells as therapeutic agents and gene delivery vehicle for wound repair and regeneration

Wound therapy remains a clinical challenge and much effort has been focused on the development of novel therapeutic approaches for wound management. New knowledge about the way in which signals control wound cellular and molecular behavior has promoted the topical application of multipotent stem cells and bioactive molecules to injured tissue, for skin regeneration with less scar formation. However, limited clinical success indicates that the effective delivery of polypeptides and therapeutic cells, with controlled releasing profile, is a major challenge which is yet to be overcome. Recently, a technique in which the genetically-manipulated stem cells were used both as the therapeutic agents and the vehicle for gene delivery for wound treatment - a method which serves to provide regenerative cells and bioactive genes within an optimal environment of regulatory molecular expression for wound sites - has emerged as a promising strategy for wound regenerative therapy. In this article, the roles of adult stem cells - as the therapeutics and the vehicles in these advanced biomimetic drug delivery systems for wound regeneration medicine - are scrutinized to indicate their mechanisms, characteristics, broad applicability and future lines of investigation.

Osteoinductivity Assessment of BMP-2 Loaded Composite Chitosan-Nano-Hydroxyapatite Scaffolds in a Rat Muscle Pouch

The objective of this study was to evaluate the osteoinductivity of composite chitosan-nano-hydroxyapatite scaffolds in a rat muscle pouch model. Previous in vitro characterization demonstrated the ability of the scaffolds to promote bone regeneration and as a carrier for local delivery of BMP-2. Composite microspheres were prepared using a co-precipitation method, and scaffolds were fabricated using an acid wash to adhere beads together. To determine the in vivo osteoinductivity of the scaffolds, the following groups (n = 6) were implanted into muscle pouches created in the latissimus dorsi of Sprague Dawley rats: (A) lyophilized scaffolds without rhBMP-2, (B) lyophilized scaffolds with rhBMP-2, (C) non-lyophilized scaffolds with rhBMP-2, and (D) absorbable collagen sponge with rhBMP-2 (control). Groups B, C, and D were loaded with 4 mL of a 9.0 μg/mL solution of rhBMP-2 for 48 h. The rats were sacrificed after one month and samples were analyzed for amount of residual implant material, new bone, and osteoid. Although the experimental groups displayed minimal degradation after one month, all of the scaffolds contained small amounts of woven bone and considerable amounts of osteoid. Approximately thirty percent of the open space available for tissue ingrowth in the scaffolds contained new bone or osteoid in the process of mineralization. The ability of the composite scaffolds (with and without BMP-2) to promote ectopic bone growth in vivo was demonstrated.

Control of the pore architecture in three-dimensional hydroxyapatite-reinforced hydrogel scaffolds

Hydrogels (gellan or agarose) reinforced with nanocrystalline carbonated hydroxyapatite (nCHA) were prepared by the GELPOR3D technique. This simple method is characterized by compositional flexibility; it does not require expensive equipment, thermal treatment, or aggressive or toxic solvents, and yields a three-dimensional (3D) network of interconnected pores 300-900 μm in size. In addition, an interconnected porosity is generated, yielding a hierarchical porous architecture from the macro to the molecular scale. This porosity depends on both the drying/preservation technology (freeze drying or oven drying at 37 ^○C) and on the content and microstructure of the reinforcing ceramic. For freeze-dried samples, the porosities were approximately 30, 66 and below 3% for pore sizes of 600-900 μm, 100-200 μm and 50-100 nm, respectively. The pore structure depends much on the ceramic content, so that higher contents lead to the disappearance of the characteristic honeycomb structure observed in low-ceramic scaffolds and to a lower fraction of the 100-200-μm-sized pores. The nature of the hydrogel did not affect the pore size distribution but was crucial for the behavior of the scaffolds in a hydrated medium: gellan-containing scaffolds showed a higher swelling degree owing to the presence of more hydrophilic groups.

Biocomposites and hybrid biomaterials based on calcium orthophosphates

The state-of-the-art of biocomposites and hybrid biomaterials based on calcium orthophosphates that are suitable for biomedical applications is presented in this review. Since these types of biomaterials offer many significant and exciting possibilities for hard tissue regeneration, this subject belongs to a rapidly expanding area of biomedical research. Through successful combinations of the desired properties of matrix materials with those of fillers (in such systems, calcium orthophosphates might play either role), innovative bone graft biomaterials can be designed. Various types of biocomposites and hybrid biomaterials based on calcium orthophosphates, either those already in use or being investigated for biomedical applications, are extensively discussed. Many different formulations, in terms of the material constituents, fabrication technologies, structural and bioactive properties as well as both in vitro and in vivo characteristics, have already been proposed. Among the others, the nanostructurally controlled biocomposites, those containing nanodimensional compounds, biomimetically fabricated formulations with collagen, chitin and/or gelatin as well as various functionally graded structures seem to be the most promising candidates for clinical applications. The specific advantages of using biocomposites and hybrid biomaterials based on calcium orthophosphates in the selected applications are highlighted. As the way from the laboratory to the hospital is a long one, and the prospective biomedical candidates have to meet many different necessities, this review also examines the critical issues and scientific challenges that require further research and development.

Construction of a fluorescent nanostructured chitosan-hydroxyapatite scaffold by nanocrystallon induced biomimetic mineralization and its cell biocompatibility

Biomaterial surfaces and their nanostructures can significantly influence cell growth and viability. Thus, manipulating surface characteristics of scaffolds can be a potential strategy to control cell functions for stem cell tissue engineering. In this study, in order to construct a hydroxyapatite (HAp) coated genipin-chitosan conjugation scaffold (HGCCS) with a well-defined HAp nanostructured surface, we have developed a simple and controllable approach that allows construction of a two-level, three-dimensional (3D) networked structure to provide sufficient calcium source and achieve desired mechanical function and mass transport (permeability and diffusion) properties. Using a nontoxic cross-linker (genipin) and a nanocrystallon induced biomimetic mineralization method, we first assembled a layer of HAp network-like nanostructure on a 3D porous chitosan-based framework. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) analysis confirm that the continuous network-like nanostructure on the channel surface of the HGCCS is composed of crystalline HAp. Compressive testing demonstrated that the strength of the HGCCS is apparently enhanced because of the strong cross-linking of genipin and the resulting reinforcement of the HAp nanonetwork. The fluorescence properties of genipin-chitosan conjugation for convenient monitoring of the 3D porous scaffold biodegradability and cell localization in the scaffold was specifically explored using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Furthermore, through scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation and immunofluorescence measurements of F-actin, we found that the HAp network-like nanostructure on the surface of the HGCCS can influence the morphology and integrin-mediated cytoskeleton organization of rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). Based on cell proliferation assays, rat BMSCs tend to have higher viability on HGCCS in vitro. The results of this study suggest that the fluorescent two-level 3D nanostructured chitosan-HAp scaffold will be a promising scaffold for bone tissue engineering application.

Gelatin functionalization with tyrosine derived moieties to increase the interaction with hydroxyapatite fillers

Combining gelatins functionalized with the tyrosine-derived groups desaminotyrosine or desaminotyrosyl tyrosine with hydroxyapatite (HAp) led to the formation of composite materials with much lower swelling ratios than those of the pure matrices. Shifts of the infra-red (IR) bands related to the free carboxyl groups could be observed in the presence of HAp, which suggested a direct interaction of matrix and filler that formed additional physical cross-links in the material. In tensile tests and rheological measurements the composites equilibrated in water had increased Young's moduli (from 200 kPa up to 2 MPa) and tensile strengths (from 57 kPa up to 1.1 MPa) compared with the matrix polymers without affecting the elongation at break. Furthermore, an increased thermal stability of the networks from 40 to 85°C could be demonstrated. The differences in the behaviour of the functionalized gelatins compared with pure gelatin as a matrix suggested an additional stabilizing bond between the incorporated aromatic groups and the HAp as supported by the IR results. The composites can potentially be applied as bone fillers.

Biopolymer-based hydrogels as scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: a review

Hydrogels are physically or chemically cross-linked polymer networks that are able to absorb large amounts of water. They can be classified into different categories depending on various parameters including the preparation method, the charge, and the mechanical and structural characteristics. The present review aims to give an overview of hydrogels based on natural polymers and their various applications in the field of tissue engineering. In a first part, relevant parameters describing different hydrogel properties and the strategies applied to finetune these characteristics will be described. In a second part, an important class of biopolymers that possess thermosensitive properties (UCST or LCST behavior) will be discussed. Another part of the review will be devoted to the application of cryogels. Finally, the most relevant biopolymer-based hydrogel systems, the different methods of preparation, as well as an in depth overview of the applications in the field of tissue engineering will be given.

Development of novel nanoparticles shelled with heparin for berberine delivery to treat Helicobacter pylori

Various approaches have been proposed to overcome the unpleasant side-effects associated with antibiotic treatment for Helicobacter pylori. The limited effectiveness of such approaches has forced researchers to consider alternative strategies to eliminate H. pylori infection. The plant alkaloid berberine is known to significantly reduce proliferation of H. pylori. To localize berberine to the site of H. pylori infection, this study developed a novel nanoparticle berberine carrier with a heparin shell. Analysis of a simulated gastrointestinal medium indicated that the proposed in vitro drug carrier system effectively controlled the release of berberine, which interacted specifically with the intercellular space at the site of H. pylori infection. Furthermore, the prepared nanoparticles significantly increased the suppressive effect of berberine on H. pylori growth while efficiently reducing cytotoxic effects in H. pylori-infected cells.

Development of novel nanoparticles shelled with heparin for berberine delivery to treat Helicobacter pylori

Various approaches have been proposed to overcome the unpleasant side-effects associated with antibiotic treatment for Helicobacter pylori. The limited effectiveness of such approaches has forced researchers to consider alternative strategies to eliminate H. pylori infection. The plant alkaloid berberine is known to significantly reduce proliferation of H. pylori. To localize berberine to the site of H. pylori infection, this study developed a novel nanoparticle berberine carrier with a heparin shell. Analysis of a simulated gastrointestinal medium indicated that the proposed in vitro drug carrier system effectively controlled the release of berberine, which interacted specifically with the intercellular space at the site of H. pylori infection. Furthermore, the prepared nanoparticles significantly increased the suppressive effect of berberine on H. pylori growth while efficiently reducing cytotoxic effects in H. pylori-infected cells.

Chitosan composites for bone tissue engineering--an overview

Bone contains considerable amounts of minerals and proteins. Hydroxyapatite [Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂] is one of the most stable forms of calcium phosphate and it occurs in bones as major component (60 to 65%), along with other materials including collagen, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate and lipids. In recent years, significant progress has been made in organ transplantation, surgical reconstruction and the use of artificial protheses to treat the loss or failure of an organ or bone tissue. Chitosan has played a major role in bone tissue engineering over the last two decades, being a natural polymer obtained from chitin, which forms a major component of crustacean exoskeleton. In recent years, considerable attention has been given to chitosan composite materials and their applications in the field of bone tissue engineering due to its minimal foreign body reactions, an intrinsic antibacterial nature, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and the ability to be molded into various geometries and forms such as porous structures, suitable for cell ingrowth and osteoconduction. The composite of chitosan including hydroxyapatite is very popular because of the biodegradability and biocompatibility in nature. Recently, grafted chitosan natural polymer with carbon nanotubes has been incorporated to increase the mechanical strength of these composites. Chitosan composites are thus emerging as potential materials for artificial bone and bone regeneration in tissue engineering. Herein, the preparation, mechanical properties, chemical interactions and in vitro activity of chitosan composites for bone tissue engineering will be discussed.

Cellular activity of bioactive nanograined/ultrafine-grained materials

Our recent electron microscopy study on biomimetic nanostructured coatings on nanograined/ultrafine-grained (NG/UFG) substrates [Mater Sci Eng C 2009;29:2417-27] indicated that electrocrystallized nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) on phase-reversion-induced NG/UFG substrates exhibited a vein-type interconnected and fibrillar structure that closely mimicked the hierarchical structure of bone. The fibrillar structure on NG/UFG substrate is expected to be more favorable for cellular response than a planar surface. In contrast, hydroxyapatite (HA) coating on coarse-grained (CG) substrate more closely resembled a film rather than a fibrillar structure. Inspired by the differences in the structure of HA coating, we describe here the cell-substrate interactions of pre-osteoblasts (MC 3T3-E1) on bioactive NG/UFG and CG austenitic stainless steel substrates. NG/UFG austenitic stainless steel was obtained by a novel controlled phase-reversion annealing of cold-deformed austenite. This example provides an illustration of how a combination of cellular and molecular biology, materials science and engineering can advance our understanding of cell-substrate interactions. Interestingly, the cellular response of nanohydroxyapatite (nHA)-coated NG/UFG substrate demonstrated superior cytocompatibility, improved initial cell attachment, higher viability and proliferation, and well-spread morphology in relation to HA-coated CG substrate and their respective uncoated (bare) counterparts as implied by fluorescence and electron microscopy and MTT assay. Similar conclusions were derived from an immunofluorescence study that involved examination of the expression levels of vinculin focal adhesion contacts associated with dense actin stress fibers and fibronectin, protein analysis through protein bands in SDS-PAGE, and quantitative total protein assay. The enhancement of cellular response followed the sequence: nHA-coated NG/UFG>nHA-coated CG>NG/UFG>CG substrates. The outcomes of the study are expected to counter the challenges associated with the engineering of nanostructured surfaces with specific physical and surface properties for medical devices with significantly improved cellular response.

Biocomposites containing natural polymers and hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering

Bone tissue engineering is an alternative strategy to generate bone utilizing a combination of biomaterials and cells. Biomaterials that mimic the structure and composition of bone tissues at nanoscale are important for the development of bone tissue engineering applications. Natural or biopolymer-based composites containing chitin, chitosan, or collagen have advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability that are essential for bone tissue engineering. The inclusion of nanoparticles of hydroxyapatite (one of the most widely used bioceramic materials) into the biopolymer matrix improves the mechanical properties and incorporates the nanotopographic features that mimic the nanostructure of bone. This review summarizes the recent work on the development of biocomposites containing natural polymers with hydroxyapatite particles suitable for use in bone defects/bone regeneration.

In Situ Swelling Behavior of Chitosan-Polygalacturonic Acid/Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposites in Cell Culture Media

The molecular and mechanical characteristics of in situ degradation behavior of chitosan-polygalacturonic acid/hydroxyapatite (Chi-PgA-HAP) nanocomposite films is investigated using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and modulus mapping techniques for up to 48 days of soaking in cell culture media. The surface molecular structure of media-soaked samples changes over the course of 48 days of soaking, as indicated by significant changes in phosphate vibrations (1200–900 ) indicating apatite formation. Chitosan-Polygalacturonic acid polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) govern structural integrity of Chi-PgA-HAP nanocomposites and FTIR spectra indicate that PECs remain intact until 48 days of soaking. In situ AFM experiments on media-soaked samples indicate that soaking results in a change in topography and swelling proceeds differently at the initial soaking periods of about 8 days than for longer soaking. In situ modulus mapping experiments are done on soaked samples by probing 1–3 nm of surface indicating elastic moduli of 4 GPa resulting from proteins adsorbed on Chi-PgA-HAP nanocomposites. The elastic modulus decreases by 2 GPa over a long exposure to cell culture media (48 days). Thus, as water enters the Chi-PgA-HAP sample, surface molecular interactions in Chi-PgA-HAP structure occur that result in swelling, causing small changes in nanoscale mechanical properties.

Chitosan-gelatin scaffolds for tissue engineering: physico-chemical properties and biological response of buffalo embryonic stem cells and transfectant of GFP-buffalo embryonic stem cells

The favorable cellular response of newly developed cell line, buffalo embryonic stem (ES) cells to three-dimensional biodegradable chitosan-gelatin composite scaffolds with regard to stem-cell-based tissue engineering is described. Chitosan-gelatin composites were characterized by a highly porous structure with interconnected pores, and the mechanical properties were significantly enhanced. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction study indicated increased amorphous content in the scaffold on the addition of gelatin to chitosan. To develop a transfectant of green fluorescence protein (GFP)-buffalo ES cell, transfection of GFP plasmid to the cell was carried out via the electroporation procedure. In comparison with pure chitosan, cell spreading and proliferation were greater in highly visualized GFP-expressing cell-chitosan-gelatin scaffold constructs. The relative comparison of biological response involving cell proliferation and viability on the scaffolds suggests that blending of gelatin in chitosan improved cellular efficiency. Studies involving scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy, histological observations and flow cytometer analysis of the constructs implied that the polygonal cells attached to and penetrated the pores, and proliferated well, while maintaining their pluripotency during the culture period for 28days. Chitosan-gelatin scaffolds were cytocompatible with respect to buffalo ES cells. The study underscores for the first time that chitosan-gelatin scaffolds are promising candidates for ES-cell-based tissue engineering.

Development of a new chitosan hydrogel for wound dressing

Wound healing is a complex process involving an integrated response by many different cell types and growth factors in order to achieve rapid restoration of skin architecture and function. The present study evaluated the applicability of a chitosan hydrogel (CH) as a wound dressing. Scanning electron microscopy analysis was used to characterize CH morphology. Fibroblast cells isolated from rat skin were used to assess the cytotoxicity of the hydrogel. CH was able to promote cell adhesion and proliferation. Cell viability studies showed that the hydrogel and its degradation by-products are noncytotoxic. The evaluation of the applicability of CH in the treatment of dermal burns in Wistar rats was performed by induction of full-thickness transcutaneous dermal wounds. Wound healing was monitored through macroscopic and histological analysis. From macroscopic analysis, the wound beds of the animals treated with CH were considerably smaller than those of the controls. Histological analysis revealed lack of a reactive or a granulomatous inflammatory reaction in skin lesions with CH and the absence of pathological abnormalities in the organs obtained by necropsy, which supported the local and systemic histocompatibility of the biomaterial. The present results suggest that this biomaterial may aid the re-establishment of skin architecture.

Superior in vitro biological response and mechanical properties of an implantable nanostructured biomaterial: Nanohydroxyapatite-silicone rubber composite

A potential approach to achieving the objective of favorably modulating the biological response of implantable biopolymers combined with good mechanical properties is to consider compounding the biopolymer with a bioactive nanocrystalline ceramic biomimetic material with high surface area. The processing of silicone rubber (SR)-nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) composite involved uniform dispersion of nHA via shear mixing and ultrasonication, followed by compounding at sub-ambient temperature, and high-pressure solidification when the final curing reaction occurs. The high-pressure solidification approach enabled the elastomer to retain the high elongation of SR even in the presence of the reinforcement material, nHA. The biological response of the nanostructured composite in terms of initial cell attachment, cell viability and proliferation was consistently greater on SR-5wt.% nHA composite surface compared to pure SR. Furthermore, in the nanocomposite, cell spreading, morphology and density were distinctly different from that of pure SR. Pre-osteoblasts grown on SR-nHA were well spread, flat, large in size with a rough cell surface, and appeared as a group. In contrast, these features were less pronounced in SR (e.g. smooth cell surface, not well spread). Interestingly, an immunofluorescence study illustrated distinct fibronectin expression level, and stronger vinculin focal adhesion contacts associated with abundant actin stress fibers in pre-osteoblasts grown on the nanocomposite compared to SR, implying enhanced cell-substrate interaction. This finding was consistent with the total protein content and SDS-PAGE analysis. The study leads us to believe that further increase in nHA content in the SR matrix beyond 5wt.% will encourage even greater cellular response. The integration of cellular and molecular biology with materials science and engineering described herein provides a direction for the development of a new generation of nanostructured materials.