351
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Hari L, Miescher I, Shakhova O, Suter U, Chin L, Taketo M, Richardson WD, Kessaris N, Sommer L. Temporal control of neural crest lineage generation by Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Development 2012; 139:2107-17. [PMID: 22573620 DOI: 10.1242/dev.073064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Wnt/β-catenin signaling controls multiple steps of neural crest development, ranging from neural crest induction, lineage decisions, to differentiation. In mice, conditional β-catenin inactivation in premigratory neural crest cells abolishes both sensory neuron and melanocyte formation. Intriguingly, the generation of melanocytes is also prevented by activation of β-catenin in the premigratory neural crest, which promotes sensory neurogenesis at the expense of other neural crest derivatives. This raises the question of how Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates the formation of distinct lineages from the neural crest. Using various Cre lines to conditionally activate β-catenin in neural crest cells at different developmental stages, we show that neural crest cell fate decisions in vivo are subject to temporal control by Wnt/β-catenin. Unlike in premigratory neural crest, β-catenin activation in migratory neural crest cells promotes the formation of ectopic melanoblasts, while the production of most other lineages is suppressed. Ectopic melanoblasts emerge at sites of neural crest target structures and in many tissues usually devoid of neural crest-derived cells. β-catenin activation at later stages in glial progenitors or in melanoblasts does not lead to surplus melanoblasts, indicating a narrow time window of Wnt/β-catenin responsiveness during neural crest cell migration. Thus, neural crest cells appear to be multipotent in vivo both before and after emigration from the neural tube but adapt their response to extracellular signals in a temporally controlled manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisette Hari
- Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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352
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Salisbury E, Rodenberg E, Sonnet C, Hipp J, Gannon FH, Vadakkan TJ, Dickinson ME, Olmsted-Davis EA, Davis AR. Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to heterotopic ossification. J Cell Biochem 2012; 112:2748-58. [PMID: 21678472 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.23225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Heterotopic ossification (HO), or bone formation in soft tissues, is often the result of traumatic injury. Much evidence has linked the release of BMPs (bone morphogenetic proteins) upon injury to this process. HO was once thought to be a rare occurrence, but recent statistics from the military suggest that as many as 60% of traumatic injuries, resulting from bomb blasts, have associated HO. In this study, we attempt to define the role of peripheral nerves in this process. Since BMP2 has been shown previously to induce release of the neuroinflammatory molecules, substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP), from peripheral, sensory neurons, we examined this process in vivo. SP and CGRP are rapidly expressed upon delivery of BMP2 and remain elevated throughout bone formation. In animals lacking functional sensory neurons (TRPV1(-/-) ), BMP2-mediated increases in SP and CGRP were suppressed as compared to the normal animals, and HO was dramatically inhibited in these deficient mice, suggesting that neuroinflammation plays a functional role. Mast cells, known to be recruited by SP and CGRP, were elevated after BMP2 induction. These mast cells were localized to the nerve structures and underwent degranulation. When degranulation was inhibited using cromolyn, HO was again reduced significantly. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed nerves expressing the stem cell markers nanog and Klf4, as well as the osteoblast marker osterix, after BMP2 induction, in mice treated with cromolyn. The data collectively suggest that BMP2 can act directly on sensory neurons to induce neurogenic inflammation, resulting in nerve remodeling and the migration/release of osteogenic and other stem cells from the nerve. Further, blocking this process significantly reduces HO, suggesting that the stem cell population contributes to bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Salisbury
- Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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353
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Kinsler V, Shaw AC, Merks JH, Hennekam RC. The face in congenital melanocytic nevus syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2012; 158A:1014-9. [PMID: 22438093 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.34217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Congenital melanocytic nevi (CMN) are known to be associated with neurological abnormalities and melanoma, but have not been considered to be part of a developmental syndrome. The objective of this study was to test our clinical observation that children with CMN show more facial similarities than might be expected by coincidence. We selected facial photographs of 95 white Caucasian children with CMN from our database only on the basis of good neutral views, allowing careful evaluation of facial morphology. These were scored independently by two clinical geneticists using standardized categories and definitions for facial morphology. Prevalence of age-independent features was compared to established norms in a large population, and associations with cutaneous phenotype were investigated. CMN were found to be associated with characteristic facies, and 74% of children in this series had at least three typical features. The characteristic features were: wide or prominent forehead, apparent hypertelorism, eyebrow variants, periorbital fullness, small/short nose, narrow nasal ridge, broad nasal tip, broad or round face, full cheeks, prominent pre-maxilla, prominent/long philtrum, and everted lower lip. No association was found with the severity of cutaneous phenotype. We conclude that children with CMN often have a characteristic face. We propose the term "congenital melanocytic nevus syndrome" to describe this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Kinsler
- Paediatric Dermatology Department, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Trust, London, UK.
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354
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Yeh I, Argenyi Z, Vemula SS, Furmanczyk PS, Bouffard D, McCalmont TH. Plexiform melanocytic schwannoma: a mimic of melanoma. J Cutan Pathol 2012; 39:521-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0560.2011.01856.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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355
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Dupin E, Sommer L. Neural crest progenitors and stem cells: from early development to adulthood. Dev Biol 2012; 366:83-95. [PMID: 22425619 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the vertebrate embryo, the neural crest forms transiently in the dorsal neural primordium to yield migratory cells that will invade nearly all tissues and later, will differentiate into bones and cartilages, neurons and glia, endocrine cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and melanocytes. Due to the amazingly diversified array of cell types it produces, the neural crest is an attractive model system in the stem cell field. We present here in vivo and in vitro studies of single cell fate, which led to the discovery and the characterization of stem cells in the neural crest of avian and mammalian embryos. Some of the key issues in neural crest cell diversification are discussed, such as the time of segregation of mesenchymal vs. neural/melanocytic lineages, and the origin and close relationships between the glial and melanocytic lineages. An overview is also provided of the diverse types of neural crest-like stem cells and progenitors, recently identified in a growing number of adult tissues in animals and humans. Current and future work, in which in vivo lineage studies and the use of injury models will complement the in vitro culture analysis, should help in unraveling the properties and function of neural crest-derived progenitors in development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Dupin
- INSERM U894 Equipe Plasticité Gliale, Centre de Psychiatrie et de Neuroscience, 2 ter Rue d'Alésia 75014 Paris, France.
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356
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GNAQ and GNA11 mutations in melanocytomas of the central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol 2012; 123:457-9. [PMID: 22307269 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-012-0948-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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357
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Adameyko I, Lallemend F, Furlan A, Zinin N, Aranda S, Kitambi SS, Blanchart A, Favaro R, Nicolis S, Lübke M, Müller T, Birchmeier C, Suter U, Zaitoun I, Takahashi Y, Ernfors P. Sox2 and Mitf cross-regulatory interactions consolidate progenitor and melanocyte lineages in the cranial neural crest. Development 2012; 139:397-410. [PMID: 22186729 DOI: 10.1242/dev.065581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The cellular origin and molecular mechanisms regulating pigmentation of head and neck are largely unknown. Melanocyte specification is controlled by the transcriptional activity of Mitf, but no general logic has emerged to explain how Mitf and progenitor transcriptional activities consolidate melanocyte and progenitor cell fates. We show that cranial melanocytes arise from at least two different cellular sources: initially from nerve-associated Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) and later from a cellular source that is independent of nerves. Unlike the midbrain-hindbrain cluster from which melanoblasts arise independently of nerves, a large center of melanocytes in and around cranial nerves IX-X is derived from SCPs, as shown by genetic cell-lineage tracing and analysis of ErbB3-null mutant mice. Conditional gain- and loss-of-function experiments show genetically that cell fates in the neural crest involve both the SRY transcription factor Sox2 and Mitf, which consolidate an SCP progenitor or melanocyte fate by cross-regulatory interactions. A gradual downregulation of Sox2 in progenitors during development permits the differentiation of both neural crest- and SCP-derived progenitors into melanocytes, and an initial small pool of nerve-associated melanoblasts expands in number and disperses under the control of endothelin receptor B (Ednrb) and Wnt5a signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Adameyko
- Unit of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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358
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Achilleos A, Trainor PA. Neural crest stem cells: discovery, properties and potential for therapy. Cell Res 2012; 22:288-304. [PMID: 22231630 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2012.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural crest (NC) cells are a migratory cell population synonymous with vertebrate evolution. They generate a wide variety of cell and tissue types during embryonic and adult development including cartilage and bone, connective tissue, pigment and endocrine cells as well as neurons and glia amongst many others. Such incredible lineage potential combined with a limited capacity for self-renewal, which persists even into adult life, demonstrates that NC cells bear the key hallmarks of stem and progenitor cells. In this review, we describe the identification, characterization and isolation of NC stem and progenitor cells from different tissues in both embryo and adult organisms. We discuss their specific properties and their potential application in cell-based tissue and disease-specific repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annita Achilleos
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
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359
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A complex genomic rearrangement involving the endothelin 3 locus causes dermal hyperpigmentation in the chicken. PLoS Genet 2011; 7:e1002412. [PMID: 22216010 PMCID: PMC3245302 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 10/22/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermal hyperpigmentation or Fibromelanosis (FM) is one of the few examples of skin pigmentation phenotypes in the chicken, where most other pigmentation variants influence feather color and patterning. The Silkie chicken is the most widespread and well-studied breed displaying this phenotype. The presence of the dominant FM allele results in extensive pigmentation of the dermal layer of skin and the majority of internal connective tissue. Here we identify the causal mutation of FM as an inverted duplication and junction of two genomic regions separated by more than 400 kb in wild-type individuals. One of these duplicated regions contains endothelin 3 (EDN3), a gene with a known role in promoting melanoblast proliferation. We show that EDN3 expression is increased in the developing Silkie embryo during the time in which melanoblasts are migrating, and elevated levels of expression are maintained in the adult skin tissue. We have examined four different chicken breeds from both Asia and Europe displaying dermal hyperpigmentation and conclude that the same structural variant underlies this phenotype in all chicken breeds. This complex genomic rearrangement causing a specific monogenic trait in the chicken illustrates how novel mutations with major phenotypic effects have been reused during breed formation in domestic animals. The process of animal domestication has been a long and ongoing effort of the human race to cultivate beneficial traits in agriculturally productive or otherwise beneficial species. We are just now beginning to understand the effect this type of selection pressure has had on genetic variation and overall genome architecture using quickly advancing modern genetic and genomic technologies. Here we show how along the path of animal domestication a single large rearrangement involving a duplication and inversion of two distinct regions of the chicken genome occurred, likely disrupting long-range cis-regulatory elements of endothelin 3 (EDN3) and resulting in a very extreme skin pigmentation phenotype. Dermal hyperpigmentation, or Fibromelanosis (FM), is a defining characteristic of the Silkie chicken breed, which originates in China. Chickens very similar to the Silkie have been described in ancient Chinese texts on traditional medicine, illustrating how unique phenotypes in domesticated animals are incorporated into human culture and tradition that persists to this day. The presence of the same rearrangement in other FM chicken breeds found around the world highlights both the causality of this mutation as well as how humans serve to spread genetic variation linked to novel traits in domestic animals.
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360
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Pereira JA, Lebrun-Julien F, Suter U. Molecular mechanisms regulating myelination in the peripheral nervous system. Trends Neurosci 2011; 35:123-34. [PMID: 22192173 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2011.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2011] [Revised: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 11/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Glial cells and neurons are engaged in a continuous and highly regulated bidirectional dialog. A remarkable example is the control of myelination. Oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells (SCs) in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) wrap their plasma membranes around axons to organize myelinated nerve fibers that allow rapid saltatory conduction. The functionality of this system is critical, as revealed by numerous neurological diseases that result from deregulation of the system, including multiple sclerosis and peripheral neuropathies. In this review we focus on PNS myelination and present a conceptual framework that integrates crucial signaling mechanisms with basic SC biology. We will highlight signaling hubs and overarching molecular mechanisms, including genetic, epigenetic, and post-translational controls, which together regulate the interplay between SCs and axons, extracellular signals, and the transcriptional network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge A Pereira
- Institute of Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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361
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362
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Whiteman DC, Pavan WJ, Bastian BC. The melanomas: a synthesis of epidemiological, clinical, histopathological, genetic, and biological aspects, supporting distinct subtypes, causal pathways, and cells of origin. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2011; 24:879-97. [PMID: 21707960 PMCID: PMC3395885 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2011.00880.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Converging lines of evidence from varied scientific disciplines suggest that cutaneous melanomas comprise biologically distinct subtypes that arise through multiple causal pathways. Understanding the respective relationships of each subtype with etiologic factors such as UV radiation and constitutional factors is the first necessary step toward developing refined prevention strategies for the specific forms of melanoma. Furthermore, classifying this disease precisely into biologically distinct subtypes is the key to developing mechanism-based treatments, as highlighted by recent discoveries. In this review, we outline the historical developments that underpin our understanding of melanoma heterogeneity, and we do this from the perspectives of clinical presentation, histopathology, epidemiology, molecular genetics, and developmental biology. We integrate the evidence from these separate trajectories to catalog the emerging major categories of melanomas and conclude with important unanswered questions relating to the development of melanoma and its cells of origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Whiteman
- Cancer Control Group, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.
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363
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364
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Luciani F, Champeval D, Herbette A, Denat L, Aylaj B, Martinozzi S, Ballotti R, Kemler R, Goding CR, De Vuyst F, Larue L, Delmas V. Biological and mathematical modeling of melanocyte development. Development 2011; 138:3943-54. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.067447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We aim to evaluate environmental and genetic effects on the expansion/proliferation of committed single cells during embryonic development, using melanoblasts as a paradigm to model this phenomenon. Melanoblasts are a specific type of cell that display extensive cellular proliferation during development. However, the events controlling melanoblast expansion are still poorly understood due to insufficient knowledge concerning their number and distribution in the various skin compartments. We show that melanoblast expansion is tightly controlled both spatially and temporally, with little variation between embryos. We established a mathematical model reflecting the main cellular mechanisms involved in melanoblast expansion, including proliferation and migration from the dermis to epidermis. In association with biological information, the model allows the calculation of doubling times for melanoblasts, revealing that dermal and epidermal melanoblasts have short but different doubling times. Moreover, the number of trunk founder melanoblasts at E8.5 was estimated to be 16, a population impossible to count by classical biological approaches. We also assessed the importance of the genetic background by studying gain- and loss-of-function β-catenin mutants in the melanocyte lineage. We found that any alteration of β-catenin activity, whether positive or negative, reduced both dermal and epidermal melanoblast proliferation. Finally, we determined that the pool of dermal melanoblasts remains constant in wild-type and mutant embryos during development, implying that specific control mechanisms associated with cell division ensure half of the cells at each cell division to migrate from the dermis to the epidermis. Modeling melanoblast expansion revealed novel links between cell division, cell localization within the embryo and appropriate feedback control through β-catenin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavie Luciani
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Delphine Champeval
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Aurélie Herbette
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Laurence Denat
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Bouchra Aylaj
- Laboratoire Mathématiques Appliquées aux systèmes, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande Voie des Vignes, 94235 Chatenay-Malabry Cedex, France
| | - Silvia Martinozzi
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Robert Ballotti
- INSERM U895, Equipe 1, 28 Avenue de Valombrose, 06107 Nice Cedex 2, France
| | - Rolf Kemler
- Max-Planck Institute of Immunobiology, Department of Molecular Embryology, D-79108 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Colin R. Goding
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Florian De Vuyst
- Laboratoire Mathématiques Appliquées aux systèmes, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande Voie des Vignes, 94235 Chatenay-Malabry Cedex, France
- Centre de Mathématiques et de leurs applications, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, 61 Avenue du Président Wilson, 94235 Cachan Cedex, France
| | - Lionel Larue
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Véronique Delmas
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Developmental Genetics of Melanocytes, 91405 Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3347, 91405 Orsay, France
- INSERM U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
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365
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Transcriptomic analysis of mouse embryonic skin cells reveals previously unreported genes expressed in melanoblasts. J Invest Dermatol 2011; 132:170-8. [PMID: 21850021 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2011.252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Studying the development of melanoblasts, precursors of melanocytes, is challenging owing to their scarcity and dispersion in the skin embryo. However, this is an important subject because diverse diseases are associated with defective melanoblast development. Consequently, characterizing patterns of expression in melanoblasts during normal development is an important issue. This requires isolating enough melanoblasts during embryonic development to obtain sufficient RNA to study their transcriptome. ZEG reporter mouse line crossed with Tyr::Cre mouse line was used to label melanoblasts by enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) autofluorescence. We isolated melanoblasts by FACS from the skin of E14.5-E16.5 embryos, and obtained sufficient cells for large-scale transcriptomic analysis after RNA isolation and amplification. We confirmed our array-based data for various genes of interest by standard quantitative real-time RT-PCR. We demonstrated that phosphatase and tensin homolog was expressed in melanoblasts but BRN2 was not, although both are involved in melanomagenesis. We also revealed the potential contribution of genes not previously implicated in any function in melanocytes or even in neural crest derivatives. Finally, the Schwann cell markers, PLP1 and FABP7, were significantly expressed in melanoblasts, melanocytes, and melanoma. This study demonstrates the feasibility of the transcriptomic analysis of purified melanoblasts at different embryonic stages and reveals the involvement of previously unreported genes in melanoblast development.
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366
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Budi EH, Patterson LB, Parichy DM. Post-embryonic nerve-associated precursors to adult pigment cells: genetic requirements and dynamics of morphogenesis and differentiation. PLoS Genet 2011; 7:e1002044. [PMID: 21625562 PMCID: PMC3098192 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The pigment cells of vertebrates serve a variety of functions and generate a
stunning variety of patterns. These cells are also implicated in human
pathologies including melanoma. Whereas the events of pigment cell development
have been studied extensively in the embryo, much less is known about
morphogenesis and differentiation of these cells during post-embryonic stages.
Previous studies of zebrafish revealed genetically distinct populations of
embryonic and adult melanophores, the ectotherm homologue of amniote
melanocytes. Here, we use molecular markers, vital labeling, time-lapse imaging,
mutational analyses, and transgenesis to identify peripheral nerves as a niche
for precursors to adult melanophores that subsequently migrate to the skin to
form the adult pigment pattern. We further identify genetic requirements for
establishing, maintaining, and recruiting precursors to the adult melanophore
lineage and demonstrate novel compensatory behaviors during pattern regulation
in mutant backgrounds. Finally, we show that distinct populations of latent
precursors having differential regenerative capabilities persist into the adult.
These findings provide a foundation for future studies of post-embryonic pigment
cell precursors in development, evolution, and neoplasia. Understanding the biology of post-embryonic stem and progenitor cells is of both
basic and translational importance. To identify mechanisms by which stem and
progenitor cells are established, maintained, and recruited to particular fates,
we are using the zebrafish adult pigment pattern. Previous work showed that
embryonic and adult pigment cells have different genetic requirements, but
little is known about the molecular or proliferative phenotypes of precursors to
adult pigment cells or where these precursors reside during post-embryonic
development. We show here that post-embryonic pigment cell precursors are
associated with peripheral nerves and that these cells migrate to the skin
during the larval-to-adult transformation when the adult pigment pattern forms.
We also define morphogenetic and differentiative roles for several genes in
promoting these events. Finally, we demonstrate that latent precursor pools
persist into the adult and that different pools have different capacities for
supplying new pigment cells in the context of pattern regeneration. Our study
sets the stage for future analyses to identify additional common and essential
features of pigment stem cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erine H. Budi
- Department of Biology, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Molecular and Cellular
Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of
America
| | - Larissa B. Patterson
- Department of Biology, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Biology, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - David M. Parichy
- Department of Biology, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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367
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert N. Kelsh
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry and Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Gregory S. Barsh
- Departments of Genetics and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
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368
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Motohashi T, Yamanaka K, Chiba K, Miyajima K, Aoki H, Hirobe T, Kunisada T. Neural crest cells retain their capability for multipotential differentiation even after lineage-restricted stages. Dev Dyn 2011; 240:1681-93. [PMID: 21594952 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Multipotency of neural crest cells (NC cells) is thought to be a transient phase at the early stage of their generation; after NC cells emerge from the neural tube, they are specified into the lineage-restricted precursors. We analyzed the differentiation of early-stage NC-like cells derived from Sox10-IRES-Venus ES cells, where the expression of Sox10 can be visualized with a fluorescent protein. Unexpectedly, both the Sox10+/Kit- cells and the Sox10+/Kit+ cells, which were restricted in vivo to the neuron (N)-glial cell (G) lineage and melanocyte (M) lineage, respectively, generated N, G, and M, showing that they retain multipotency. We generated mice from the Sox10-IRES-Venus ES cells and analyzed the differentiation of their NC cells. Both the Sox10+/Kit- cells and Sox10+/Kit+ cells isolated from these mice formed colonies containing N, G, and M, showing that they are also multipotent. These findings suggest that NC cells retain multipotency even after the initial lineage-restricted stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Motohashi
- Department of Tissue and Organ Development, Regeneration, and Advanced Medical Science, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, CREST-JST, Gifu, Japan.
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369
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Dupin E. [Phenotypic plasticity of neural crest-derived melanocytes and Schwann cells]. Biol Aujourdhui 2011; 205:53-61. [PMID: 21501576 DOI: 10.1051/jbio/2011008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Melanocytes, the pigmented cells of the skin, and the glial Schwann cells lining peripheral nerves are developmentally derived from an early and transient ectodermal structure of the vertebrate embryo, the neural crest, which is also at the origin of multiple neural and non-neural cell types. Besides melanocytes and neural cells of the peripheral nervous system, the neural crest cells give rise to mesenchymal cell types in the head, which form most of the craniofacial skeleton, dermis, fat tissue and vascular musculo-connective components. How such a wide diversity of differentiation fates is established during embryogenesis and is later maintained in adult tissues are among key questions in developmental and stem cell biology. The analysis of the developmental potentials of single neural crest cells cultured in vitro led to characterizing multipotent stem/progenitor cells as well as more restricted precursors in the early neural crest of avian and mammalian embryos. Data support a hierarchical model of the diversification of neural crest lineages through progressive restrictions of multipotent stem cell potentials driven by local environmental factors. In particular, melanocytes and glial Schwann cells were shown to arise from a common bipotent progenitor, which depends upon the peptide endothelin-3 for proliferation and self-renewal ability. In vivo, signaling by endothelin-3 and its receptor is also required for the early development of melanocytes and proper pigmentation of the vertebrate body. It is generally assumed that, after lineage specification and terminal differentiation, specialized cell types, like the melanocytes and Schwann cells, do not change their identity. However, this classic notion that somatic cell differentiation is a stable and irreversible process has been challenged by emerging evidence that dedifferentiation can occur in different biological systems through nuclear transfer, cell fusion, epigenetic modifications and ectopic gene expression. This review considers the issue of whether neural crest-derived lineages are endowed with some phenotypic plasticity. Emphasis is put on the ability of pigment cells and Schwann cells to dedifferentiate and reprogram their fate in vitro. To address this question, we have studied the clonal progeny of differentiated Schwann cells and melanocytes after their isolation from the sciatic nerve and the back skin of quail embryos, respectively. When stimulated to proliferate in vitro in the presence of endothelin-3, both cell types were able to dedifferentiate and produce alternative neural crest-derived cell lineages. Individual Schwann cells isolated by FACS, using a glial-specific surface marker, gave rise in culture to pigment cells and myofibroblasts/smooth muscle cells. Treatment of the cultures with endothelin-3 was required for Schwann cell conversion into melanocytes, which involved acquisition of multipotency. Moreover, Schwann cell plasticity could also be induced in vivo: following transplantation into the branchial arch of a young chick host embryo, dedifferentiating Schwann cells were able to integrate the forming head structures of the host and, specifically, to contribute smooth muscle cells to the wall of cranial blood vessels. We also analyzed the in vitro behavior of individual pigment cells obtained by microdissection and enzymatic treatment of quail epidermis at embryonic and hatching stages. In single cell cultures treated with endothelin-3, pigment cells strongly proliferated while rapidly dedifferentiating into unpigmented cells, leading to the formation of large colonies that comprised glial cells and myofibroblasts in addition to melanocytes. By serially subcloning these primary colonies, we could efficiently propagate a bipotent glial-melanocytic precursor that is generated in the progeny of the melanocytic founder. These data therefore suggest that pigment cells have the ability to revert back to the state of self-renewing neural crest-like progenitors. Altogether, these studies have shown that Schwann cells and pigment cells display an unstable status of differentiation, which can be disclosed if these differentiated cells are displaced out of their native tissue. When challenged with new environmental conditions in vitro, differentiated Schwann cells and pigment cells can reacquire stem cell properties of their neural crest ancestors. Notably, such reprogramming was achieved through the effect of a single exogenous factor and without the need of any induced genetic modification. Deciphering the cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate the plasticity and maintenance of neural crest-derived differentiated cells is likely to be an important step towards the understanding of the neurocristopathies and cancers that target neural crest derivatives in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Dupin
- Inserm U894 Equipe Plasticité gliale, Centre Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, 2 ter rue d'Alésia, 75014 Paris, France.
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370
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Abstract
In this essay, the role of the neural crest in the development of the vertebrate embryo is briefly described. The techniques used to document the neural crest origin of various cell types and the tumors arising from them are discussed, with emphasis on Le Douarin's quail-chick chimera model. The current dogma on the origin of the cells of the diffuse endocrine system is presented, and some personal conjectures based on the microscopic appearances of various types of normal, vestigial and neoplastic human tissues are offered to the reader as 'food for thought.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Rosai
- International Center for Oncologic Pathology Consultations, Centro Diagnostico Italiano, Milan, Italy.
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371
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Jinno H, Morozova O, Jones KL, Biernaskie JA, Paris M, Hosokawa R, Rudnicki MA, Chai Y, Rossi F, Marra MA, Miller FD. Convergent genesis of an adult neural crest-like dermal stem cell from distinct developmental origins. Stem Cells 2011; 28:2027-40. [PMID: 20848654 DOI: 10.1002/stem.525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Skin-derived precursors (SKPs) are multipotent dermal stem cells that reside within a hair follicle niche and that share properties with embryonic neural crest precursors. Here, we have asked whether SKPs and their endogenous dermal precursors originate from the neural crest or whether, like the dermis itself, they originate from multiple developmental origins. To do this, we used two different mouse Cre lines that allow us to perform lineage tracing: Wnt1-cre, which targets cells deriving from the neural crest, and Myf5-cre, which targets cells of a somite origin. By crossing these Cre lines to reporter mice, we show that the endogenous follicle-associated dermal precursors in the face derive from the neural crest, and those in the dorsal trunk derive from the somites, as do the SKPs they generate. Despite these different developmental origins, SKPs from these two locations are functionally similar, even with regard to their ability to differentiate into Schwann cells, a cell type only thought to be generated from the neural crest. Analysis of global gene expression using microarrays confirmed that facial and dorsal SKPs exhibit a very high degree of similarity, and that they are also very similar to SKPs derived from ventral dermis, which has a lateral plate origin. However, these developmentally distinct SKPs also retain differential expression of a small number of genes that reflect their developmental origins. Thus, an adult neural crest-like dermal precursor can be generated from a non-neural crest origin, a finding with broad implications for the many neuroendocrine cells in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Jinno
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
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372
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Abstract
The neural crest is a transient structure in vertebrate embryos that generates multiple neural and mesenchymal cell types as well as melanocytes. Melanocytes in the skin either derive directly from neural crest cells populating the skin via a dorsolateral migratory pathway or arise by detaching from nerves innervating the skin. Several transcription factors, such as FoxD3, Sox10, Pax3, and Mitf, take part in a genetic network regulating melanocyte formation from the neural crest. The activity of these intrinsic factors is controlled and modulated by extracellular signals including canonical Wnt, Edn, Kitl, and other signals that remain to be identified. Here, we summarize the current view of how melanocytes are specified from the neural crest and put this process into the context of spatiotemporal lineage decisions in neural crest cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Sommer
- Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse, Zurich, Switzerland.
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373
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Kormos B, Belso N, Bebes A, Szabad G, Bacsa S, Széll M, Kemény L, Bata-Csörgo Z. In vitro dedifferentiation of melanocytes from adult epidermis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17197. [PMID: 21383848 PMCID: PMC3044174 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous work we described a novel culture technique using a cholera toxin and PMA-free medium (Mel-mix) for obtaining pure melanocyte cultures from human adult epidermis. In Mel-mix medium the cultured melanocytes are bipolar, unpigmented and highly proliferative. Further characterization of the cultured melanocytes revealed the disappearance of c-Kit and TRP-1 and induction of nestin expression, indicating that melanocytes dedifferentiated in this in vitro culture. Cholera toxin and PMA were able to induce c-Kit and TRP-1 protein expressions in the cells, reversing dedifferentiation. TRP-1 mRNA expression was induced in dedifferentiated melanocytes by UV-B irradiated keratinocyte supernatants, however direct UV-B irradiation of the cells resulted in further decrease of TRP-1 mRNA expression. These dedifferentiated, easily accessible cultured melanocytes provide a good model for studying melanocyte differentiation and possibly transdifferentiation. Because melanocytes in Mel-mix medium can be cultured with human serum as the only supplement, this culture system is also suitable for autologous cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernadett Kormos
- Dermatological Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary.
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374
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Krispin S, Nitzan E, Kalcheim C. The dorsal neural tube: a dynamic setting for cell fate decisions. Dev Neurobiol 2011; 70:796-812. [PMID: 20683859 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.20826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The dorsal neural tube first generates neural crest cells that exit the neural primordium following an epithelial-to-mesenchymal conversion to become sympathetic ganglia, Schwann cells, dorsal root sensory ganglia, and melanocytes of the skin. Following the end of crest emigration, the dorsal midline of the neural tube becomes the roof plate, a signaling center for the organization of dorsal neuronal cell types. Recent lineage analysis performed before the onset of crest delamination revealed that the dorsal tube is a highly dynamic region sequentially traversed by fate-restricted crest progenitors. Furthermore, prospective roof plate cells were shown to originate ventral to presumptive crest and to progressively relocate dorsalward to occupy their definitive midline position following crest delamination. These data raise important questions regarding the mechanisms of cell emigration in relation to fate acquisition, and suggest the possibility that spatial and/or temporal information in the dorsal neural tube determines initial segregation of neural crest cells into their derivatives. In addition, they emphasize the need to address what controls the end of neural crest production and consequent roof plate formation, a fundamental issue for understanding the separation between central and peripheral lineages during development of the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomo Krispin
- Department of Medical Neurobiology, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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375
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[What's new in dermatological research?]. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2011; 137 Suppl 4:S137-44. [PMID: 21193117 DOI: 10.1016/s0151-9638(10)70040-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dermatology research has been very rich this year, once again. The physiopathological mechanisms of paradoxical reactions to anti-TNF are better understood and new therapeutic targets for psoriasis have been evidenced. Targeted therapy in oncodermatology have shown their potential usefulness clinically but fundamental data have also clarified their mechanisms of action as well as their limits. The key role played by the immune system in nonsegmental vitiligo has also been clearly demonstrated. Fibroblasts as well as visible light seem to play a key role that has been poorly understood to date within the complex mechanisms of cutaneous pigmentation. Specific receptors of pruritus have been reported and foster hope for the development of more effective antipruriginous treatments in the near future. Other studies report new potential targets for diseases such as fungoid mycosis, atopic dermatitis, or scleroderma. Finally, physiopathological explanations have contributed to a variety of domains such as greying hair, axillary odors, HIV and herpes virus interrelations, and the teratogenicity of thalidomide.
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376
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377
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Van Raamsdonk CD, Griewank KG, Crosby MB, Garrido MC, Vemula S, Wiesner T, Obenauf AC, Wackernagel W, Green G, Bouvier N, Sozen MM, Baimukanova G, Roy R, Heguy A, Dolgalev I, Khanin R, Busam K, Speicher MR, O'Brien J, Bastian BC. Mutations in GNA11 in uveal melanoma. N Engl J Med 2010; 363:2191-9. [PMID: 21083380 PMCID: PMC3107972 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1000584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1048] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Uveal melanoma is the most common intraocular cancer. There are no effective therapies for metastatic disease. Mutations in GNAQ, the gene encoding an alpha subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins, are found in 40% of uveal melanomas. METHODS We sequenced exon 5 of GNAQ and GNA11, a paralogue of GNAQ, in 713 melanocytic neoplasms of different types (186 uveal melanomas, 139 blue nevi, 106 other nevi, and 282 other melanomas). We sequenced exon 4 of GNAQ and GNA11 in 453 of these samples and in all coding exons of GNAQ and GNA11 in 97 uveal melanomas and 45 blue nevi. RESULTS We found somatic mutations in exon 5 (affecting Q209) and in exon 4 (affecting R183) in both GNA11 and GNAQ, in a mutually exclusive pattern. Mutations affecting Q209 in GNA11 were present in 7% of blue nevi, 32% of primary uveal melanomas, and 57% of uveal melanoma metastases. In contrast, we observed Q209 mutations in GNAQ in 55% of blue nevi, 45% of uveal melanomas, and 22% of uveal melanoma metastases. Mutations affecting R183 in either GNAQ or GNA11 were less prevalent (2% of blue nevi and 6% of uveal melanomas) than the Q209 mutations. Mutations in GNA11 induced spontaneously metastasizing tumors in a mouse model and activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. CONCLUSIONS Of the uveal melanomas we analyzed, 83% had somatic mutations in GNAQ or GNA11. Constitutive activation of the pathway involving these two genes appears to be a major contributor to the development of uveal melanoma. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and others.).
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378
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Pharmacodynamic characterization of the efficacy signals due to selective BRAF inhibition with PLX4032 in malignant melanoma. Neoplasia 2010; 12:637-49. [PMID: 20689758 DOI: 10.1593/neo.10414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 05/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE About 65% to 70% of melanomas harbor a mutation in v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B1 (BRAF) that causes the steady-state activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). We sought to investigate the efficacy of PLX4032 (BRAF inhibitor) to identify patterns/predictors of response/resistance and to study the effects of BRAF in melanoma. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Well-characterized melanoma cell lines, including several with acquired drug resistance, were exposed to PLX4032. Growth inhibition, phosphosignaling, cell cycle, apoptosis, and gene expression analyses were performed before and after exposure to drug. RESULTS Using a growth-adjusted inhibitory concentration of 50% cutoff of 1 microM, 13 of 35 cell lines were sensitive to PLX4032, 16 resistant, and 6 intermediate (37%, 46%, and 17% respectively). PLX4032 caused growth inhibition, G(0)/G(1) arrest, and restored apoptosis in the sensitive cell lines. A BRAF mutation predicted for but did not guarantee a response, whereas a neuroblastoma RAS viral oncogene homolog mutation or wild-type BRAF conferred resistance. Cells with concurrent BRAF mutations and melanocortin 1 receptor germ line variants and/or a more differentiated melanocyte genotype had a preferential response. Acquired PLX4032 resistance reestablishes ERK signaling, promotes a nonmelanocytic genotype, and is associated with an increase in the gene expression of certain metallothioneins and mediators of angiogenesis. CONCLUSIONS PLX4032 has robust activity in BRAF mutated melanoma. The preclinical use of this molecule identifies criteria for its proper clinical application, describes patterns of and reasons for response/resistance, and affords insight into the role of a BRAF mutation in melanoma.
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379
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Aoki H, Hara A, Motohashi T, Osawa M, Kunisada T. Functionally distinct melanocyte populations revealed by reconstitution of hair follicles in mice. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2010; 24:125-35. [PMID: 21054816 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2010.00801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hair follicle reconstitution analysis was used to test the contribution of melanocytes or their precursors to regenerated hair follicles. In this study, we first confirmed the process of chimeric hair follicle regeneration by both hair keratinocytes and follicular melanocytes. Then, as first suggested from the differential growth requirements of epidermal skin melanocytes and non-cutaneous or dermal melanocytes, we confirmed the inability of the latter to be involved as follicular melanocytes to regenerate hair follicles during the hair reconstitution assay. This clear functional discrimination between non-cutaneous or dermal melanocytes and epidermal melanocytes suggests the presence of two different melanocyte cell lineages, a finding that might be important in the pathogenesis of melanocyte-related diseases and melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Aoki
- Department of Tissue and Organ Development, Regeneration, and Advanced Medical Science, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, Yanagido, Gifu, Japan
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380
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Adameyko I, Lallemend F. Glial versus melanocyte cell fate choice: Schwann cell precursors as a cellular origin of melanocytes. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:3037-55. [PMID: 20454996 PMCID: PMC11115498 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0390-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2010] [Revised: 04/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Melanocytes and Schwann cells are derived from the multipotent population of neural crest cells. Although both cell types were thought to be generated through completely distinct pathways and molecular processes, a recent study has revealed that these different cell types are intimately interconnected far beyond previously postulated limits in that they share a common post-neural crest progenitor, i.e. the Schwann cell precursor. This finding raises interesting questions about the lineage relationships of hitherto unrelated cell types such as melanocytes and Schwann cells, and may provide clinical insights into mechanisms of pigmentation disorders and for cancer involving Schwann cells and melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Adameyko
- Unit of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Scheeles väg 1-A1-plan2, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Francois Lallemend
- Unit of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Scheeles väg 1-A1-plan2, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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381
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Abstract
Tumours comprise multiple phenotypically distinct subpopulations of cells, some of which are proposed to possess stem cell-like properties, being able to self-renew, seed and maintain tumours, and provide a reservoir of therapeutically resistant cells. Here, we use melanoma as a model to explore the validity of the cancer stem cell hypothesis in the light of accumulating evidence that melanoma progression may instead be driven by phenotype-switching triggered by genetic lesions that impose an increased sensitivity to changes in the tumour microenvironment. Although at any given moment cells within a tumour may exhibit differentiated, proliferative or invasive phenotypes, an ability to switch phenotypes implies that most cells will have the potential to adopt a stem cell-like identity. Insights into the molecular events underpinning phenotype-switching in melanoma highlight the close relationship between signalling pathways that generate, maintain and activate melanocyte stem cells as well as the inverse correlation between proliferation and invasive potentials. An understanding of phenotype-switching in melanoma, and in particular the signalling events that regulate the expression of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor Mitf, points to new therapeutic opportunities aimed at eradicating therapeutically resistant stem cell-like melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith S Hoek
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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382
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Curran K, Lister JA, Kunkel GR, Prendergast A, Parichy DM, Raible DW. Interplay between Foxd3 and Mitf regulates cell fate plasticity in the zebrafish neural crest. Dev Biol 2010; 344:107-18. [PMID: 20460180 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Pigment cells of the zebrafish, Danio rerio, offer an exceptionally tractable system for studying the genetic and cellular bases of cell fate decisions. In the zebrafish, neural crest cells generate three types of pigment cells during embryogenesis: yellow xanthophores, iridescent iridophores and black melanophores. In this study, we present evidence for a model whereby melanophores and iridophores descend from a common precursor whose fate is regulated by an interplay between the transcription factors Mitf and Foxd3. Loss of mitfa, a key regulator of melanophore development, resulted in supernumerary ectopic iridophores while loss of foxd3, a mitfa repressor, resulted in fewer iridophores. Double mutants showed a restoration of iridophores, suggesting that one of Foxd3's roles is to suppress mitfa to promote iridophore development. Foxd3 co-localized with pnp4a, a novel marker of early iridophore development, and was necessary for its expression. A considerable overlap was found between iridoblast and melanoblast markers but not xanthoblast markers, which resolved as cells began to differentiate. Cell lineage analyses using the photoconvertible marker, EosFP, revealed that both melanophores and iridophores develop from a mitfa+ precursor. Taken together, our data reveal a Foxd3/mitfa transcriptional switch that governs whether a bi-potent pigment precursor will attain either an iridophore or a melanophore fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Curran
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7420, USA
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383
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Harris ML, Baxter LL, Loftus SK, Pavan WJ. Sox proteins in melanocyte development and melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2010; 23:496-513. [PMID: 20444197 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2010.00711.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Over 10 years have passed since the first Sox gene was implicated in melanocyte development. Since then, we have discovered that SOX5, SOX9, SOX10 and SOX18 all participate as transcription factors that affect key melanocytic genes in both regulatory and modulatory fashions. Both SOX9 and SOX10 play major roles in the establishment and normal function of the melanocyte; SOX10 has been shown to heavily influence melanocyte development and SOX9 has been implicated in melanogenesis in the adult. Despite these advances, the precise cellular and molecular details of how these SOX proteins are regulated and interact during all stages of the melanocyte life cycle remain unknown. Improper regulation of SOX9 or SOX10 is also associated with cancerous transformation, and thus understanding the normal function of SOX proteins in the melanocyte will be key to revealing how these proteins contribute to melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Harris
- Genetic Disease Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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384
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Selfridge J, Song L, Brownstein DG, Melton DW. Mice with DNA repair gene Ercc1 deficiency in a neural crest lineage are a model for late-onset Hirschsprung disease. DNA Repair (Amst) 2010; 9:653-60. [PMID: 20362516 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2010.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Revised: 02/18/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The Ercc1 gene is essential for nucleotide excision repair and is also important in recombination repair and the repair of interstrand crosslinks. We have previously used a floxed Ercc1 allele with a keratinocyte-specific Cre recombinase transgene to inactivate Ercc1 in the epidermal layer of the skin and so generate a mouse model for UV-induced non-melanoma skin cancer. Now, in an attempt to generate a model for UV-induced melanoma, we have used the floxed Ercc1 allele in combination with a Cre transgene under the control of the tyrosinase gene promoter to produce mice with Ercc1-deficient melanocytes that are hypersensitive to UV irradiation. These animals developed normally, but died when 4-6 months old with severe colonic obstruction. Melanocytes are derived from the neural crest and the tyrosinase promoter is also expressed in additional neural crest-derived lineages, including the progenitors of the parasympathetic nervous system that innervates the gastrointestinal tract and controls gut peristalsis. A functional enteric nervous system developed in floxed Ercc1 mice with the tyrosinase Cre transgene, but was found to have degenerated in the colons of affected mice. We suggest that accumulating unrepaired endogenous DNA damage in the Ercc1-deficient colonic parasympathetic ganglia leads to the degeneration of this network and results in a colonic obstructive disorder that resembles late-onset Hirschsprung disease in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim Selfridge
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
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385
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Ernfors P. Cellular origin and developmental mechanisms during the formation of skin melanocytes. Exp Cell Res 2010; 316:1397-407. [PMID: 20211169 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2010.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Melanocytes are derived from the neural crest (NC), which are transient multipotent cells arising by delamination from the developing dorsal neural tube. During recent years, signaling systems and molecular mechanisms of melanocyte development have been studied in detail, but the exact diversification of the NC into melanocytes and how they migrate, expand and disperse in the skin have not been fully understood. The recent finding that Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) of the growing nerve represents a stem cell niche from which various cell types, including Schwann cells, endoneural fibroblasts and melanocytes arise has exposed new knowledge on the cellular basis for melanocyte development. This opens for the identification of new factors and reinterpretation of old data on cell fate instructive, proliferative, survival and cell homing factors participating in melanocyte development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Ernfors
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.
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386
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Zhang D, Brinas IM, Binder BJ, Landman KA, Newgreen DF. Neural crest regionalisation for enteric nervous system formation: Implications for Hirschsprung's disease and stem cell therapy. Dev Biol 2010; 339:280-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 12/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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387
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Worthley DL, Giraud AS, Wang TC. Stromal fibroblasts in digestive cancer. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT SOCIETY 2010; 3:117-25. [PMID: 21209778 PMCID: PMC2970811 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-009-0033-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The normal gastrointestinal stroma consists of extra-cellular matrix and a community of stromal cells including fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, pericytes, endothelium and inflammatory cells. α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) positive stromal fibroblasts, often referred to as myofibroblasts or activated fibroblasts, are critical in the development of digestive cancer and help to create an environment that is permissive of tumor growth, angiogenesis and invasion. This review focusses on the contribution of activated fibroblasts in carcinogenesis and where possible directly applies this to, and draws on examples from, gastrointestinal cancer. In particular, the review expands on the definition, types and origins of activated fibroblasts. It examines the molecular biology of stromal fibroblasts and their contribution to the peritumoral microenvironment and concludes by exploring some of the potential clinical applications of this exciting branch of cancer research. Understanding the origin and biology of activated fibroblasts will help in the development of an integrated epithelial-stromal sequence to cancer that will ultimately inform cancer pathogenesis, natural history and future therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L. Worthley
- Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital Research Foundation Clinical Research Centre, Brisbane, Queensland Australia
- Conjoint Gastroenterology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland Australia
| | - Andrew S. Giraud
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
| | - Timothy C. Wang
- Division of Liver and Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, 1130 St. Nicholas Avenue, Room 923, New York, NY 10032 USA
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Editors' Picks. J Invest Dermatol 2010. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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