351
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New challenges and opportunities in nonclinical safety testing of biologics. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 69:226-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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352
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Drake PM, Albers AE, Baker J, Banas S, Barfield RM, Bhat AS, de Hart GW, Garofalo AW, Holder P, Jones LC, Kudirka R, McFarland J, Zmolek W, Rabuka D. Aldehyde tag coupled with HIPS chemistry enables the production of ADCs conjugated site-specifically to different antibody regions with distinct in vivo efficacy and PK outcomes. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:1331-41. [PMID: 24924618 PMCID: PMC4215875 DOI: 10.1021/bc500189z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
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It is becoming increasingly clear
that site-specific conjugation
offers significant advantages over conventional conjugation chemistries
used to make antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs). Site-specific
payload placement allows for control over both the drug-to-antibody
ratio (DAR) and the conjugation site, both of which play an important
role in governing the pharmacokinetics (PK), disposition, and efficacy
of the ADC. In addition to the DAR and site of conjugation, linker
composition also plays an important role in the properties of an ADC.
We have previously reported a novel site-specific conjugation platform
comprising linker payloads designed to selectively react with site-specifically
engineered aldehyde tags on an antibody backbone. This chemistry results
in a stable C–C bond between the antibody and the cytotoxin
payload, providing a uniquely stable connection with respect to the
other linker chemistries used to generate ADCs. The flexibility and
versatility of the aldehyde tag conjugation platform has enabled us
to undertake a systematic evaluation of the impact of conjugation
site and linker composition on ADC properties. Here, we describe the
production and characterization of a panel of ADCs bearing the aldehyde
tag at different locations on an IgG1 backbone conjugated using Hydrazino-iso-Pictet-Spengler (HIPS) chemistry. We demonstrate that
in a panel of ADCs with aldehyde tags at different locations, the
site of conjugation has a dramatic impact on in vivo efficacy and
pharmacokinetic behavior in rodents; this advantage translates to
an improved safety profile in rats as compared to a conventional lysine
conjugate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope M Drake
- Redwood Bioscience , 5703 Hollis Street, Emeryville, California 94608, United States
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353
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Li X, Fang T, Boons G. Preparation of Well‐Defined Antibody–Drug Conjugates through Glycan Remodeling and Strain‐Promoted Azide–Alkyne Cycloadditions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201402606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiuru Li
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602 (USA)
| | - Tao Fang
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602 (USA)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia (USA)
| | - Geert‐Jan Boons
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602 (USA)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia (USA)
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354
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Li X, Fang T, Boons GJ. Preparation of well-defined antibody-drug conjugates through glycan remodeling and strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloadditions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:7179-82. [PMID: 24862406 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Antibody-drug conjugates hold considerable promise as anticancer agents, however, producing them remains a challenge and there is a need for mild, broadly applicable, site-specific conjugation methods that yield homogenous products. It was envisaged that enzymatic remodeling of the oligosaccharides of an antibody would enable the introduction of reactive groups that can be exploited for the site-specific attachment of cytotoxic drugs. This is based on the observation that glycosyltransferases often tolerate chemical modifications in their sugar nucleotide substrates, thus allowing the installation of reactive functionalities. An azide was incorporated because this functional group is virtually absent in biological systems and can be reacted by strain-promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition. This method, which does not require genetic engineering, was used to produce an anti-CD22 antibody modified with doxorubicin to selectively target and kill lymphoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuru Li
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602 (USA)
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355
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Strop
- Rinat-Pfizer Inc., 230 East Grand Avenue, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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356
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Rader C. Chemically programmed antibodies. Trends Biotechnol 2014; 32:186-97. [PMID: 24630478 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Due to their unlimited chemical diversity, small molecules can rival monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with respect to specificity and affinity for target molecules. However, key pharmacological properties of mAbs remain unmatched by small molecules. Chemical programming strategies have been developed for site-specific and covalent conjugation of small molecules to mAbs with unique reactivity centers. In addition to blending favorable features of small molecules and mAbs, chemically programmed antibodies (cpAbs) are economically attractive because they utilize the same mAb for an almost unlimited number of target molecule specificities, reducing manufacturing costs and shortening drug discovery and development time. Preclinical studies and clinical trials have begun to demonstrate the broad utility of cpAbs for the treatment and prevention of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Rader
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way #2C1, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way #2C1, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA.
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357
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Zhou Q, Stefano JE, Manning C, Kyazike J, Chen B, Gianolio DA, Park A, Busch M, Bird J, Zheng X, Simonds-Mannes H, Kim J, Gregory RC, Miller RJ, Brondyk WH, Dhal PK, Pan CQ. Site-specific antibody-drug conjugation through glycoengineering. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:510-20. [PMID: 24533768 DOI: 10.1021/bc400505q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have been proven clinically to be more effective anti-cancer agents than native antibodies. However, the classical conjugation chemistries to prepare ADCs by targeting primary amines or hinge disulfides have a number of shortcomings including heterogeneous product profiles and linkage instability. We have developed a novel site-specific conjugation method by targeting the native glycosylation site on antibodies as an approach to address these limitations. The native glycans on Asn-297 of antibodies were enzymatically remodeled in vitro using galactosyl and sialyltransferases to introduce terminal sialic acids. Periodate oxidation of these sialic acids yielded aldehyde groups which were subsequently used to conjugate aminooxy functionalized cytotoxic agents via oxime ligation. The process has been successfully demonstrated with three antibodies including trastuzumab and two cytotoxic agents. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography and LC-MS analyses revealed the incorporation of ~1.6 cytotoxic agents per antibody molecule, approximating the number of sialic acid residues. These glyco-conjugated ADCs exhibited target-dependent antiproliferative activity toward antigen-positive tumor cells and significantly greater antitumor efficacy than naked antibody in a Her2-positive tumor xenograft model. These findings suggest that enzymatic remodeling combined with oxime ligation of the native glycans of antibodies offers an attractive approach to generate ADCs with well-defined product profiles. The site-specific conjugation approach presented here provides a viable alternative to other methods, which involve a need to either re-engineer the antibody sequence or develop a highly controlled chemical process to ensure reproducible drug loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Zhou
- Sanofi-Genzyme R&D Center, Genzyme Corporation, A Sanofi Company , Framingham, Massachusetts 01701, United States
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358
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Chari RVJ, Miller ML, Widdison WC. Antibody-drug conjugates: an emerging concept in cancer therapy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:3796-827. [PMID: 24677743 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201307628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 703] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Traditional cancer chemotherapy is often accompanied by systemic toxicity to the patient. Monoclonal antibodies against antigens on cancer cells offer an alternative tumor-selective treatment approach. However, most monoclonal antibodies are not sufficiently potent to be therapeutically active on their own. Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) use antibodies to deliver a potent cytotoxic compound selectively to tumor cells, thus improving the therapeutic index of chemotherapeutic agents. The recent approval of two ADCs, brentuximab vedotin and ado-trastuzumab emtansine, for cancer treatment has spurred tremendous research interest in this field. This Review touches upon the early efforts in the field, and describes how the lessons learned from the first-generation ADCs have led to improvements in every aspect of this technology, i.e., the antibody, the cytotoxic compound, and the linker connecting them, leading to the current successes. The design of ADCs currently in clinical development, and results from mechanistic studies and preclinical and clinical evaluation are discussed. Emerging technologies that seek to further advance this exciting area of research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi V J Chari
- ImmunoGen, Inc. 830 Winter St, Waltham, MA 02451 (USA) http://www.immunogen.com.
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359
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Chari RVJ, Miller ML, Widdison WC. Antikörper-Wirkstoff-Konjugate: ein neues Konzept in der Krebstherapie. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201307628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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360
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Dennler P, Chiotellis A, Fischer E, Brégeon D, Belmant C, Gauthier L, Lhospice F, Romagne F, Schibli R. Transglutaminase-based chemo-enzymatic conjugation approach yields homogeneous antibody-drug conjugates. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:569-78. [PMID: 24483299 DOI: 10.1021/bc400574z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Most chemical techniques used to produce antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) result in a heterogeneous mixture of species with variable drug-to-antibody ratios (DAR) which will potentially display different pharmacokinetics, stability, and safety profiles. Here we investigated two strategies to obtain homogeneous ADCs based on site-specific modification of deglycosylated antibodies by microbial transglutaminase (MTGase), which forms isopeptidic bonds between Gln and Lys residues. We have previously shown that MTGase solely recognizes Gln295 within the heavy chain of IgGs as a substrate and can therefore be exploited to generate ADCs with an exact DAR of 2. The first strategy included the direct, one-step attachment of the antimitotic toxin monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE) to the antibody via different spacer entities with a primary amine functionality that is recognized as a substrate by MTGase. The second strategy was a chemo-enzymatic, two-step approach whereby a reactive spacer entity comprising a bio-orthogonal thiol or azide function was attached to the antibody by MTGase and subsequently reacted with a suitable MMAE-derivative. To this aim, we investigated two different chemical approaches, namely, thiol-maleimide and strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). Direct enzymatic attachment of MMAE-spacer derivatives at an 80 molar excess of drug yielded heterogeneous ADCs with a DAR of between 1.0 to 1.6. In contrast to this, the chemo-enzymatic approach only required a 2.5 molar excess of toxin to yield homogeneous ADCs with a DAR of 2.0 in the case of SPAAC and 1.8 for the thiol-maleimide approach. As a proof-of-concept, trastuzumab (Herceptin) was armed with the MMAE via the chemo-enzymatic approach using SPAAC and tested in vitro. Trastuzumab-MMAE efficiently killed BT-474 and SK-BR-3 cells with an IC50 of 89.0 pM and 21.7 pM, respectively. Thus, the chemo-enzymatic approach using MTGase is an elegant strategy to form ADCs with a defined DAR of 2. Furthermore, the approach is directly applicable to a broad variety of antibodies as it does not require prior genetic modifications of the antibody sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Dennler
- Center for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences ETH-PSI-USZ, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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361
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Zimmerman ES, Heibeck TH, Gill A, Li X, Murray CJ, Madlansacay MR, Tran C, Uter NT, Yin G, Rivers PJ, Yam AY, Wang WD, Steiner AR, Bajad SU, Penta K, Yang W, Hallam TJ, Thanos CD, Sato AK. Production of site-specific antibody-drug conjugates using optimized non-natural amino acids in a cell-free expression system. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:351-61. [PMID: 24437342 DOI: 10.1021/bc400490z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are a targeted chemotherapeutic currently at the cutting edge of oncology medicine. These hybrid molecules consist of a tumor antigen-specific antibody coupled to a chemotherapeutic small molecule. Through targeted delivery of potent cytotoxins, ADCs exhibit improved therapeutic index and enhanced efficacy relative to traditional chemotherapies and monoclonal antibody therapies. The currently FDA-approved ADCs, Kadcyla (Immunogen/Roche) and Adcetris (Seattle Genetics), are produced by conjugation to surface-exposed lysines, or partial disulfide reduction and conjugation to free cysteines, respectively. These stochastic modes of conjugation lead to heterogeneous drug products with varied numbers of drugs conjugated across several possible sites. As a consequence, the field has limited understanding of the relationships between the site and extent of drug loading and ADC attributes such as efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics, and immunogenicity. A robust platform for rapid production of ADCs with defined and uniform sites of drug conjugation would enable such studies. We have established a cell-free protein expression system for production of antibody drug conjugates through site-specific incorporation of the optimized non-natural amino acid, para-azidomethyl-l-phenylalanine (pAMF). By using our cell-free protein synthesis platform to directly screen a library of aaRS variants, we have discovered a novel variant of the Methanococcus jannaschii tyrosyl tRNA synthetase (TyrRS), with a high activity and specificity toward pAMF. We demonstrate that site-specific incorporation of pAMF facilitates near complete conjugation of a DBCO-PEG-monomethyl auristatin (DBCO-PEG-MMAF) drug to the tumor-specific, Her2-binding IgG Trastuzumab using strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) copper-free click chemistry. The resultant ADCs proved highly potent in in vitro cell cytotoxicity assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik S Zimmerman
- Sutro Biopharma, Inc. 310 Utah Ave Suite 150 South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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362
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Abstract
Using an expanded genetic code, antibodies with site-specifically incorporated nonnative amino acids were produced in stable cell lines derived from a CHO cell line with titers over 1 g/L. Using anti-5T4 and anti-Her2 antibodies as model systems, site-specific antibody drug conjugates (NDCs) were produced, via oxime bond formation between ketones on the side chain of the incorporated nonnative amino acid and hydroxylamine functionalized monomethyl auristatin D with either protease-cleavable or noncleavable linkers. When noncleavable linkers were used, these conjugates were highly stable and displayed improved in vitro efficacy as well as in vivo efficacy and pharmacokinetic stability in rodent models relative to conventional antibody drug conjugates conjugated through either engineered surface-exposed or reduced interchain disulfide bond cysteine residues. The advantages of the oxime-bonded, site-specific NDCs were even more apparent when low-antigen-expressing (2+) target cell lines were used in the comparative studies. NDCs generated with protease-cleavable linkers demonstrated that the site of conjugation had a significant impact on the stability of these rationally designed prodrug linkers. In a single-dose rat toxicology study, a site-specific anti-Her2 NDC was well tolerated at dose levels up to 90 mg/kg. These experiments support the notion that chemically defined antibody conjugates can be synthesized in commercially relevant yields and can lead to antibody drug conjugates with improved properties relative to the heterogeneous conjugates formed by nonspecific chemical modification.
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363
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Reichert JM, Beck A, Lugovskoy AA, Wurch T, Coats S, Brezski RJ. 9th annual European Antibody Congress, November 11-13, 2013, Geneva, Switzerland. MAbs 2014; 6:309-26. [PMID: 24492298 PMCID: PMC7098616 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.27903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The annual European Antibody Congress (EAC) has traditionally been the key event for updates on critical scientific advances in the antibody field, and 2013 was no exception. Organized by Terrapinn, the well-attended meeting featured presentations on considerations for developing antibodies and antibody-like therapeutics, with separate tracks for antibody-drug conjugates, naked antibodies, and multispecific antibodies or protein scaffolds. The overall focus of the EAC was current approaches to enhance the functionality of therapeutic antibodies or other targeted proteins, with the ultimate goal being improvement of the safety and efficacy of the molecules as treatments for cancer, immune-mediated disorders and other diseases. Roundtable discussion sessions gave participants opportunities to engage in group discussions with industry leaders from companies such as Genmab, Glenmark Pharmaceuticals, MedImmune, Merrimack Pharmaceuticals, and Pierre Fabre. As the 2013 EAC was co-located with the World Biosimilar Congress, participants also received an update on European Medicines Agency guidelines and thoughts on the future direction and development of biosimilar antibodies in the European Union.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alain Beck
- Centre d'Immunologie Pierre Fabre; Saint Julien en Genevois, France
| | | | - Thierry Wurch
- Institut de Recherches SERVIER; Oncology R&D Unit, F-78290; Croissy-sur-Seine, France
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364
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Farias SE, Strop P, Delaria K, Galindo Casas M, Dorywalska M, Shelton DL, Pons J, Rajpal A. Mass spectrometric characterization of transglutaminase based site-specific antibody-drug conjugates. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 25:240-50. [PMID: 24359082 DOI: 10.1021/bc4003794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) are becoming an important new class of therapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer. ADCs are produced through the linkage of a cytotoxic small molecule (drug) to monoclonal antibodies that target tumor cells. Traditionally, most ADCs rely on chemical conjugation methods that yield heterogeneous mixtures of varying number of drugs attached at different positions. The potential benefits of site-specific drug conjugation in terms of stability, manufacturing, and improved therapeutic index has recently led to the development of several new site-specific conjugation technologies. However, detailed characterization of the degree of site specificity is currently lacking. In this study we utilize mass spectrometry to characterize the extent of site-specificity of an enzyme-based site-specific antibody-drug conjugation technology that we recently developed. We found that, in addition to conjugation of the engineered site, a small amount of aglycosylated antibody present in starting material led to conjugation at position Q295, resulting in approximately 1.3% of off-target conjugation. Based on our detection limits, we show that Q295N mutant eliminates the off-target conjugation yielding highly homogeneous conjugates that are better than 99.8% site-specific. Our study demonstrates the importance of detailed characterization of ADCs and describes methods that can be utilized to characterize not only our enzyme based conjugates, but also ADCs generated by other conjugation technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago E Farias
- Rinat-Pfizer Inc. , 230 East Grand Avenue, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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365
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Hess C, Venetz D, Neri D. Emerging classes of armed antibody therapeutics against cancer. MEDCHEMCOMM 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3md00360d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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366
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Perez HL, Cardarelli PM, Deshpande S, Gangwar S, Schroeder GM, Vite GD, Borzilleri RM. Antibody-drug conjugates: current status and future directions. Drug Discov Today 2013; 19:869-81. [PMID: 24239727 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) aim to take advantage of the specificity of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to deliver potent cytotoxic drugs selectively to antigen-expressing tumor cells. Despite the simple concept, various parameters must be considered when designing optimal ADCs, such as selection of the appropriate antigen target and conjugation method. Each component of the ADC (the antibody, linker and drug) must also be optimized to fully realize the goal of a targeted therapy with improved efficacy and tolerability. Advancements over the past several decades have led to a new generation of ADCs comprising non-immunogenic mAbs, linkers with balanced stability and highly potent cytotoxic agents. Although challenges remain, recent clinical success has generated intense interest in this therapeutic class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi L Perez
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research & Development, Princeton, NJ 08543, USA
| | - Pina M Cardarelli
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research & Development, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | - Shrikant Deshpande
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research & Development, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | - Sanjeev Gangwar
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research & Development, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | | | - Gregory D Vite
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research & Development, Princeton, NJ 08543, USA
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367
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Rachel NM, Pelletier JN. Biotechnological applications of transglutaminases. Biomolecules 2013; 3:870-88. [PMID: 24970194 PMCID: PMC4030973 DOI: 10.3390/biom3040870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, transglutaminases catalyze the formation of amide bonds between proteins to form insoluble protein aggregates. This specific function has long been exploited in the food and textile industries as a protein cross-linking agent to alter the texture of meat, wool, and leather. In recent years, biotechnological applications of transglutaminases have come to light in areas ranging from material sciences to medicine. There has also been a substantial effort to further investigate the fundamentals of transglutaminases, as many of their characteristics that remain poorly understood. Those studies also work towards the goal of developing transglutaminases as more efficient catalysts. Progress in this area includes structural information and novel chemical and biological assays. Here, we review recent achievements in this area in order to illustrate the versatility of transglutaminases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie M Rachel
- Chimie, Université de Montréal, 2900 Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1J4, Canada.
| | - Joelle N Pelletier
- Chimie, Université de Montréal, 2900 Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1J4, Canada.
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368
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Engineered antibodies for molecular imaging of cancer. Methods 2013; 65:139-47. [PMID: 24091005 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody technology has transformed drug development, providing robust approaches to producing highly targeted and active therapeutics that can routinely be advanced through clinical evaluation and registration. In parallel, there is an emerging need to access similarly targeted agents for diagnostic purposes, including non-invasive imaging in preclinical models and patients. Antibody engineering enables modification of key properties (immunogenicity, valency, biological inertness, pharmacokinetics, clearance route, site-specific conjugation) in order to produce targeting agents optimized for molecular imaging. Expanded availability of positron-emitting radionuclides has led to a resurgence of interest and applications of immunoPET (immuno-positron emission tomography). Molecular imaging using engineered antibodies and fragments provides a general approach for assessing cell surface phenotype in vivo and stands to play an increasingly important role in cancer diagnosis, treatment selection, and monitoring of molecularly targeted therapeutics.
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