Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) as a Cancer Biomarker and MMP-9 Biosensors: Recent Advances

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) Expression in Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma and Its Association with Clinicopathologic Factors

Background & Objective:

Matrix metalloproteinases-9 (MMP-9) is one of the most important enzymes to breakdown extracellular matrix which plays a major role in tumor invasion and metastasis. This study aimed to determine tumor MMP-9 expression in non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and whether it is associated with histopathologic factors and has prognostic value to affect overall survival (OS).

Methods:

The specimens of 92 patients with NSCLC diagnosis were included. Tumor sections were stained by immunohistochemistry method. Using scores for the percentage of cells positively stained and the intensity of staining, MMP-9 expression total score was classified as low-score (scores of 0 to 2), moderate-score (scores of 3 to 5), or high-score (scores of 6 or 7). OS was defined as the time interval since the diagnosis of NSCLC to the status at the last follow-up (dead or alive). The follow up period was up to 70 months.

Results:

About 74% of undifferentiated specimens (grade III tumors) showed high scores for MMP-9 expression which was significantly higher than moderately differentiated tumors (25% had high scores for MMP-9 expression) and well differentiated ones which did not have high scores (P<0.001). A total of 74 patients (80.4%) died during the follow-up period. Of this, 36% had high scores for MMP-9 expression. In contrast, none of the patients who were alive at the last follow-up had high scores for MMP-9 expression (P<0.001). Median OS was significantly lower in high score group (6 months) compared to moderate score (9 months) and high score group (15 months) (P<0.001).

Conclusion:

MMP-9 expression may serve as a significant prognostic factor for mortality and overall survival in NSCLC. Undifferentiated tumors significantly express higher MMP-9 immunohistochemically.

Exosomal miR-638 Inhibits Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression by Targeting SP1

Purpose

Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) play essential roles in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Nevertheless, the role and mechanism of exosomal miR-638 in HCC development remain largely unknown.

Methods

Exosomes were isolated and confirmed via transmission electron microscopy and western blot. The abundances of miR-638 and specificity protein 1 (SP1) were measured via quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction or western blot. Cell proliferation was investigated by Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation assay, apoptosis, cell cycle distribution and related protein expression. Cell migration and invasion were detected via transwell assay and western blot. Co-culture experiment was performed to assess exosome transfer from HCC cells to endothelial cells. The target correlation between miR-638 and SP1 was analyzed via dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation assays. The subcutaneous xenograft experiment was conducted to test the function of miR-638 in vivo.

Results

The miR-638 level declined in exosomes from serum or HCC cell medium. miR-638 overexpression repressed HCC cell proliferation by decreasing viability and colony formation and inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G1 phase, and decreased abilities of migration and invasion. Exosomal miR-638 from HCC cells could transfer to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and suppress HUVEC proliferation, migration and invasion. SP1 was a target of miR-638 and overexpression of SP1 reversed the effect of miR-638 on HCC cells. Overexpression of miR-638 reduced xenograft tumor growth via decreasing SP1.

Conclusion

Exosomal miR-638 inhibited HCC tumorigenesis by targeting SP1. This study indicated the potential clinical implications of miR-638 in HCC.

The Impact of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 on the Sequential Steps of the Metastatic Process

In industrialized countries, cancer is the second leading cause of death after cardiovascular disease. Most cancer patients die because of metastases, which consist of the self-transplantation of malignant cells in anatomical sites other than the one from where the tumor arose. Disseminated cancer cells retain the phenotypic features of the primary tumor, and display very poor differentiation indices and functional regulation. Upon arrival at the target organ, they replace preexisting, normal cells, thereby permanently compromising the patient's health; the metastasis can, in turn, metastasize. The spread of cancer cells implies the degradation of the extracellular matrix by a variety of enzymes, among which the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 is particularly effective. This article reviews the available published literature concerning the important role that MMP-9 has in the metastatic process. Additionally, information is provided on therapeutic approaches aimed at counteracting, or even preventing, the development of metastasis via the use of MMP-9 antagonists.

Platelet-Released Growth Factors and Platelet-Rich Fibrin Induce Expression of Factors Involved in Extracellular Matrix Organization in Human Keratinocytes

Platelet-released growth factor (PRGF) is a thrombocyte concentrate lysate which, like its clinically equivalent variations (e.g., Vivostat PRF^® (platelet-rich fibrin)), is known to support the healing of chronic and hard-to-heal wounds. However, studies on the effect of PRGF on keratinocytes remain scarce. This study aims to identify genes in keratinocytes that are significantly influenced by PRGF. Therefore, we performed a whole transcriptome and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis of PRGF-stimulated human primary keratinocytes. This revealed an increased expression of genes involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) organization. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis confirmed the PRGF-mediated induction of selected ECM-related factors such as transforming growth factor beta-induced protein, fibronectin 1, matrix metalloproteinase-9, transglutaminase 2, fermitin family member 1, collagen type I alpha 1 and collagen type XXII alpha 1. PRGF-induced expression of the above factors was influenced by blockade of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a receptor playing a crucial role in wound healing. A differential induction of the investigated factors was also detected in skin explants exposed to PRGF and in experimentally generated in vivo wounds treated with Vivostat PRF^®. Together, our study indicates that the induction of ECM-related factors may contribute to the beneficial wound-healing effects of PRGF-based formulations.

Effect of three-dimensional ECM stiffness on cancer cell migration through regulating cell volume homeostasis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness has direct effect on cancer cells homeostasis (e.g., cell volume), which is critical for regulation of their migration. However, the relationship among ECM stiffness, cell volume and cancer cell migration in three-dimensional (3D) microenvironment remains elusive. In this work, we prepared the collagen-alginate hydrogels with tunable stiffness to study how the 3D ECM stiffness influences cell volume and their migration. We found the cell volume homeostasis and migration speed of the MDA-MB-231 cells are both regulated by 3D ECM stiffness, while cell migration speed shows the same stiffness-dependent trend with cell volume. Deviating the cell volume from its homeostasis state can cause a significant decrease in its migration ability, which can be recovered through recovering the cell volume to its homeostasis state. This work reveals for the first time that 3D ECM stiffness regulates cell migration behavior through regulating cell volume homeostasis, which may provide a novel view in the exploration of the underlying mechanisms of cancer metastasis and cellular mechanotransduction.

MiADMSA ameliorate arsenic induced urinary bladder carcinogenesis in vivo and in vitro

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Arsenicosis is a major threat to public health and is a major cause of the development of urinary bladder cancer. Oxidative/ nitrosative stress is one of the key factors for these effects but the involvement of other associated factors is less known. There is a lack of data for the efficacy of chelator against urinary bladder carcinogenesis. The present study demonstrates the early signs of arsenic exposed urinary bladder carcinogenesis and its attenuation by Monoisoamyl dimercaptosuccinic acid (MiADMSA).

METHODS

Male rats were exposed to 50 ppm of sodium arsenite and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) via drinking water for 18 weeks and treated with MiADMSA (50 mg/kg, orally once daily for 5 days) for 3 weeks with a gap one week between the two courses of treatments. We compared in vivo data with in vitro by co-exposing 100 nM of sodium arsenite and DMA to rat (NBT-II) as well as human transitional epithelial carcinoma (T-24) cells with 100 nM of MiADMSA.

RESULTS

The data showed that sodium arsenite and DMA exposure significantly increased the tissue arsenic contents, ROS, TBARS levels, catalase, SOD activities and significantly decreased GSH level which might be responsible for an increased 8-OHdG level. These changes might have increased pro-oncogenic biomarkers like MMP-9 and survivin in serum, bladder tissues, NBT-II, and T-24 cells. High cell migration and clonogenic potential in NBT-II and T-24 cells exposed to arsenic suggest pronounced carcinogenic potential. Significant recovery in these biomarkers was noted on treatment with MiADMSA.

CONCLUSION

Early signs of urinary bladder carcinogenesis were observed in arsenic and DMA exposed rats which were linked to metal accumulation, oxidative/ nitrosative stress, 8-OHdG, MMP-9 and survivin which were reduced by MiADMSA possibly via its efficient chelation abilities in vivo and in vitro.

Tspan8 Drives Melanoma Dermal Invasion by Promoting ProMMP-9 Activation and Basement Membrane Proteolysis in a Keratinocyte-Dependent Manner

Melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer with an extremely challenging therapy. The dermal-epidermal junction (DEJ) degradation and subsequent dermal invasion are the earliest steps of melanoma dissemination, but the mechanisms remain elusive. We previously identified Tspan8 as a key actor in melanoma invasiveness. Here, we investigated Tspan8 mechanisms of action during dermal invasion, using a validated skin-reconstruct-model that recapitulates melanoma dermal penetration through an authentic DEJ. We demonstrate that Tspan8 is sufficient to induce melanoma cells’ translocation to the dermis. Mechanistically, Tspan8⁺ melanoma cells cooperate with surrounding keratinocytes within the epidermis to promote keratinocyte-originated proMMP-9 activation process, collagen IV degradation and dermal colonization. This concurs with elevated active MMP-3 and low TIMP-1 levels, known to promote MMP-9 activity. Finally, a specific Tspan8-antibody reduces proMMP-9 activation and dermal invasion. Overall, our results provide new insights into the role of keratinocytes in melanoma dermal colonization through a cooperative mechanism never reported before, and establish for the first time the pro-invasive role of a tetraspanin family member in a cell non-autonomous manner. This work also displays solid arguments for the use of Tspan8-blocking antibodies to impede early melanoma spreading and therefore metastasis.

Structure and Function of Human Matrix Metalloproteinases

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a macromolecules network, in which the most abundant molecule is collagen. This protein in triple helical conformation is highly resistant to proteinases degradation, the only enzymes capable of degrading the collagen are matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). This resistance and maintenance of collagen, and consequently of ECM, is involved in several biological processes and it must be strictly regulated by endogenous inhibitors (TIMPs). The deregulation of MMPs activity leads to development of numerous diseases. This review shows MMPs complexity.

Cell adhesion molecule 4 suppresses cell growth and metastasis by inhibiting the Akt signaling pathway in non-small cell lung cancer

Cell adhesion molecule 4 (CADM4) is downregulated in many human cancers. However, CADM4 expression levels in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tissues and its roles in NSCLC progression remain unknown. Our study aims to address these issues. We examined CADM4 levels in NSCLC tissues using real-time PCR and western blot. A549 and NCI-H1299 cells were then transfected with pcDNA3.1-CADM4 plasmid or siCADM4 to overexpress or knock down CADM4. Cell proliferation, cell cycle distribution, migration, and invasion were evaluated. NSCLC cells transfected with pcDNA3.1-CADM4 plasmid or siCADM4 were treated with SC79 or LY294002, respectively, to investigate the involvement of the Akt signaling pathway. Male nude mice were subcutaneously injected with stably transfected cells (1 × 10⁶ cells/mice) to observe tumor growth. Stable transfectants were injected into nude mice (1 × 10⁶ cells/mice) via tail vein to observe tumor metastasis. The results showed that CADM4 gene and protein levels in NSCLC tissues were significantly lower than those in corresponding adjacent tissues. CADM4 overexpression markedly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. We also found that matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and MMP-2 activities were reduced. Moreover, CADM4 overexpression arrested the cell cycle at G1 phase, with the changes in expression of cell cycle regulators. The Akt signaling pathway was inhibited by CADM4 overexpression. In contrast, CADM4 knockdown showed the opposite effects. Additionally, SC79 and LY294002 reversed the effects of CADM4 overexpression and CADM4 knockdown in vitro, respectively. In xenograft models, CAMD4 overexpression suppressed, while CADM4 knockdown promoted tumor growth, accompanied by changes in Ki67 expression. In in vivo metastasis assay, CADM4 overexpression decreased, while CADM4 knockdown increased numbers of metastatic nodules in lung and liver. These evidences suggest that CADM4 may regulate NSCLC progression via the Akt signaling pathway. CADM4 may be a potential therapeutic target for NSCLC.

LncRNA LINC00483 promotes gastric cancer development through regulating MAPK1 expression by sponging miR-490-3p

Background

Previous studies have shown that long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) LINC00483 was aberrantly expressed in human cancers, including gastric cancer. However, the regulatory mechanism of this lncRNA in gastric cancer remains largely unknown. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of LINC00483 on gastric cancer development and explore the potential regulatory network of LINC00483/microRNA (miR)-490-3p/mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1).

Methods

Thirty patients with gastric cancer were recruited for tissues collection. The expression levels of LINC00483, miR-490-3p and MAPK1 were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction or western blot. Cell viability, apoptosis, migration and invasion were determined by MTT, flow cytometry, transwell assays and western blot, respectively. The target association between miR-490-3p and LINC00483 or MAPK1 was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay. Xenograft model was established to assess the function of LINC00483 in vivo.

Results

LINC00483 and MAPK1 levels were increased in gastric cancer tissues and cells. Knockdown of LINC00483 or MAPK1 inhibited cells viability, migration and invasion but promoted apoptosis in gastric cancer cells. Moreover, MAPK1 overexpression attenuated the effect of LINC00483 knockdown on gastric cancer development. LINC00483 could increase MAPK1 expression by competitively sponging miR-490-3p. miR-490-3p overexpression suppressed gastric cancer development, which was abated by introduction of LINC00483. Besides, inhibition of LINC00483 decreased xenograft tumor growth by regulating miR-490-3p/MAPK1 axis.

Conclusion

Knockdown of LINC00483 inhibited gastric cancer development in vitro and in vivo by increasing miR-490-3p and decreasing MAPK1, elucidating a novel mechanism for understanding the development of gastric cancer.

Long non-coding RNA NCK1-AS1 promotes the tumorigenesis of glioma through sponging microRNA-138-2-3p and activating the TRIM24/Wnt/β-catenin axis

BACKGROUND

Glioma is a common brain malignancy with high mortality. The competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks may play key roles in cancer progression. This study was conducted to probe the role of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) NCK1-AS1 in glioma progression and the involved mechanisms.

METHODS

Microarray analyses were performed to explore the lncRNAs/miRNAs/genes with differential expression in glioma. NCK1-AS1 levels in glioma tissues and normal brain tissues, and in glioma cell lines and normal human glial cells were identified. The interactions among NCK1-AS1, miR-138-2-3p and TRIM24 were validated through luciferase reporter, RNA immunoprecipitation and RNA pull-down assays. Gain- and loss-of functions of NCK1-AS1, miR-138-2-3p and TRIM24 were performed to identify their roles in the behaviors of glioma cells. The activity of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway was measured. In vivo experiments were performed as well.

RESULTS

High expression of NCK1-AS1 was found in glioma tissues and cells, especially in U251 cells. Online predictions and the integrated experiments identified that NCK1-AS1 elevated the TRIM24 expression through sponging miR-138-2-3p, and further activated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Artificial silencing of NCK1-AS1 or up-regulation of miR-138-2-3p led to inhibited proliferation, invasion and migration but promoted cell apoptosis of U251 cells, while up-regulation of TRIM24 reversed these changes, and it activated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. The in vitro results were reproduced in in vivo experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that NCK1-AS1 might elevate TRIM24 expression and further activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway via acting as a ceRNA for miR-138-2-3p. Silencing of NCK1-AS1 might inhibit the progression of glioma.

Insufficient CD100 shedding contributes to suppression of CD8+ T-cell activity in non-small cell lung cancer

CD100 is an immune semaphorin constitutively expressed on T-cells. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) is an important mediator of membrane-bound CD100 (mCD100) cleavage to generate soluble CD100 (sCD100), which has immunoregulatory activity in immune cell responses. The aim of the study was to investigate the level and role of sCD100 and mCD100 in modulating CD8⁺ T-cell function in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). sCD100 and MMP-14 levels in the serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and mCD100 expression on peripheral and lung-resident CD8⁺ T-cells were analysed in NSCLC patients. The ability to induce sCD100 and the effect of MMP-14 on mCD100 shedding for the regulation of non-cytolytic and cytolytic functions of CD8⁺ T-cells were also analysed in direct and indirect contact co-culture systems. NSCLC patients had lower serum sCD100 and higher mCD100 levels on CD8⁺ T-cells compared with healthy controls. BALF from the tumour site also had decreased sCD100 and increased mCD100 on CD8⁺ T-cells compared with the non-tumour site. Recombinant CD100 stimulation enhanced non-cytolytic and cytolytic functions of CD8⁺ T-cells from NSCLC patients, whereas blockade of CD100 receptor CD72 attenuated CD8⁺ T-cell activity. NSCLC patients had lower MMP-14 in the serum and in BALF from the tumour site. Recombinant MMP-14 mediated mCD100 shedding from CD8⁺ T-cell membrane, and led to promotion of CD8⁺ T-cell response in NSCLC patients. Overall, decreased MMP-14 resulted in insufficient CD100 shedding, leading to suppression of peripheral and lung-resident CD8⁺ T-cell activity in NSCLC.

Prospective evaluation of a urinary biomarker panel to detect and predict recurrence of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer

PURPOSE

To perform a feasibility phase study of a panel of putative protein biomarkers and determine whether it can identify and predict tumor recurrence in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) on follow-up.

METHODS

We prospectively analyzed the urine of 152 patients previously treated for NMIBC. Quantitative expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), DJ-1, apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-1), matrix metallopeptidase-9 (MMP-9), and interleukin-8 (IL-8) was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and compared amongst patients with and without bladder cancer recurrence at urine collection and during 3 years of follow-up. Tumor recurrence was confirmed by pathologic analysis. We performed a prediction analysis, excluding patients with recurrence at the start of the study, and assessed the influence of previous use of intravesical BCG on the level of biomarkers.

RESULTS

Median follow-up time was 47 months (interquartile range 39-50 months). Sixteen patients (10.5%) were diagnosed with recurrence at the start of the study, and 21 (15.4%) were diagnosed during the study. Three biomarker proteins (apoA-1, MMP-9, and IL-8) appear to hold diagnostic potential [odds ratio (OR) = 12.9; 95% CI 3.5-47.4]; while, PAI-1 and IL-8 predict recurrence (OR = 4.1; 95% CI 1.4-11.4). Previous use of intravesical BCG did not affect biomarker levels.

CONCLUSION

In the feasibility phase, the panel of urine biomarkers analyzed detected and predicted recurrence of NMIBC and provided reliable results in patients who had previously used intravesical BCG. Validation studies are required to confirm the panel clinical utility.

GATA3 as a master regulator for interactions of tumor-associated macrophages with high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma

High-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) is the most lethal gynecologic cancer. Emerging evidence suggests that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play an immunosuppressive role in the tumor microenvironment and promote tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis in ovarian cancer. Therefore, targeting TAMs in patients with ovarian cancer is an appealing strategy; however, all trials to date have failed. To improve the efficacy of this approach, we sought to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the role of TAMs in ovarian cancer. We found that the developmental transcription factor GATA3 was highly expressed in HGSOC cell lines but not in the fallopian tube, which is the main origin of HGSOC. GATA3 expression was associated with poor prognosis in HGSOC patients (P < .05) and was found to promote proliferation and migration in HGSOC cell lines. GATA3 was released abundantly from TAM cells via exosomes and contributed to tumor growth in the tumor microenvironment. Moreover, GATA3 acted as a regulator for macrophage polarization and interactions between TAMs and HGSOC to support proliferation, motility, and cisplatin chemoresistance in mutant TP53 HGSOC cell lines. Furthermore, GATA3 played a critical role in the interactions between TAMs and mutant TP53 HGSOC to promote angiogenesis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition with epigenetic regulation. Targeting GATA3 using GATA3siRNA in TAMs impeded GATA3-driven proliferation, migration, cisplatin chemoresistance, and angiogenesis in mutant TP53 HGSOC cell lines. Our findings indicate that GATA3 plays a novel role in immunoediting of HGSOC and demonstrate that GATA3 may serve as a prognostic marker for HGSOC and a promising target in the treatment of HGSOC.

Bioinformatics Analysis of Prognostic Tumor Microenvironment-Related Genes in the Tumor Microenvironment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Growing evidence shows that the tumor microenvironment plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The present work aimed to screen tumor microenvironment-related genes strongly related to prognosis and to construct a prognostic gene expression model for HCC.

Material/Methods

We downloaded gene expression data of 371 HCC patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). A novel ESTIMATE algorithm was applied to calculate immune scores and stromal scores for each patient. Then, the differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) were detected according to the immune and stromal scores, and tumor microenvironment-related genes were further explored. Univariate, Lasso, and multivariate Cox analyses were performed to build the tumor microenvironment-related prediction model.

Results

Stromal and immune scores were calculated and were found to be correlated with the 3-year prognosis of HCC patients. DEGs were detected according to the stromal and immune scores. There were 49 genes with prognostic value in both TCGA and ICGC (International Cancer Genome Consortium) considered as prognostic tumor microenvironment-related genes. Univariate, Lasso, and multivariate Cox analyses were conducted. A novel 2-gene signature (IL18RAP and GPR182) was built for HCC 3-year prognosis prediction. The 2-gene signature was regarded as an independent prognostic predictor that was correlated with 3-year survival rate, as shown by Cox regression analysis.

Conclusions

This study offers a novel 2-gene signature to predict overall survival of patients with HCC, which has the potential to be used as an independent prognostic predictor. Overall, this study reveals more details about the tumor microenvironment in HCC and offers novel candidate biomarkers.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and its inhibitors in cancer: A minireview

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc dependent proteolytic metalloenzyme. MMP-9 is one of the most complex forms of matrix metalloproteinases. MMP-9 has the ability to degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) components and has important role in the pathophysiological functions. Overexpression and dysregulation of MMP-9 is associated with various diseases. Thus, regulation and inhibition of MMP-9 is an important therapeutic approach for combating various diseases including cancer. Inhibitors of MMP-9 can be used as anticancer agents. Till date no selective MMP-9 inhibitors passed the clinical trials. In this review the structure, activation, function and inhibitors of MMP-9 are mainly focused. Some highly active and/or selective MMP-9 inhibitors have been discussed which may be helpful to explore the structural significance of MMP-9 inhibitors. This study may be useful to design new potent and selective MMP-9 inhibitors against cancer in future.

Blood test shows high accuracy in detecting stage I non-small cell lung cancer

Background

In a previous study (Goebel et. al, Cancer Genomics Proteomics 16:229-244, 2019), we identified 33 biomarkers for an early stage (I-II) Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) test with 90% accuracy, 80.3% sensitivity, and 95.4% specificity. For the current study, we used a narrowed ensemble of 21 biomarkers while retaining similar accuracy in detecting early stage lung cancer.

Methods

A multiplex platform, 486 human plasma samples, and 21 biomarkers were used to develop and validate our algorithm which detects early stage NSCLC. The training set consisted of 258 human plasma with 79 Stage I-II NSCLC samples. The 21 biomarkers with the statistical model (Lung Cancer Detector Test 1, LCDT1) was then validated using 228 novel samples which included 55 Stage I NSCLC.

Results

The LCDT1 exhibited 95.6% accuracy, 89.1% sensitivity, and 97.7% specificity in detecting Stage I NSCLC on the blind set. When only NSCLC cancers were analyzed, the specificity increased to 99.1%.

Conclusions

Compared to current approved clinical methods for diagnosing NSCLC, the LCDT1 greatly improves accuracy while being non-invasive; a simple, cost-effective, early diagnostic blood test should result in expanding access and increase survival rate.

Chronic Hypoxia-Induced Microvessel Proliferation and Basal Membrane Degradation in the Bone Marrow of Rats Regulated through the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3/MMP-9 Pathway

Chronic hypoxia (CH) is characterized by long-term hypoxia that is associated with microvessel proliferation and basal membrane (BM) degradation in tissues. The IL-6/JAK2/STAT3/MMP-9 pathway has been described in a variety of human cancers and plays an essential role in microvessel proliferation and BM degradation. Therefore, this study investigated the role of the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3/MMP-9 pathway in hypoxia-mediated microvessel proliferation and BM degradation in the rat bone marrow. Eighty pathogen-free Sprague Dawley male rats were randomly divided into four groups (20 per group)—control group, CH group (exposed to hypoxia in a hypobaric chamber at a simulated altitude of 5000 m for 28 d), CH + STAT3 inhibitor group (7.5 mg/kg/d), and CH + DMSO group. Microvessel density (MVD) and BM degradation in the bone marrow were determined by immunofluorescence staining and transmission electron microscopy. Serum IL-6 levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the levels of P-JAK2, P-STAT3, and MMP-9 were assessed by western blot analysis and real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). Hypoxia increased serum IL-6 levels, which in turn increased JAK2 and STAT3 phosphorylation, which subsequently upregulated MMP-9. Overexpression of MMP-9 significantly promoted the elevation of MVD and BM degradation. Inhibition of STAT3 using an inhibitor, SH-4-54, significantly downregulated MMP-9 expression and decreased MVD and BM degradation. Surprisingly, STAT3 inhibition also decreased serum IL-6 levels and JAK2 phosphorylation. Our results suggest that the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3/MMP-9 pathway might be related to CH-induced microvessel proliferation and BM degradation in the bone marrow.

Identification of Key Genes and Pathways in Myeloma side population cells by Bioinformatics Analysis

Background: Multiple myeloma (MM) is the second most common hematological malignancy, which is still incurable and relapses inevitably, highlighting further understanding of the possible mechanisms. Side population (SP) cells are a group of enriched progenitor cells showing stem-like phenotypes with a distinct low-staining pattern with Hoechst 33342. Compared to main population (MP) cells, the underlying molecular characteristics of SP cells remain largely unclear. This bioinformatics analysis aimed to identify key genes and pathways in myeloma SP cells to provide novel biomarkers, predict MM prognosis and advance potential therapeutic targets. Methods: The gene expression profile GSE109651 was obtained from Gene Expression Omnibus database, and then differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with P-value <0.05 and |log2 fold-change (FC)| > 2 were selected by the comparison of myeloma light-chain (LC) restricted SP (LC/SP) cells and MP CD138⁺ cells. Subsequently, gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis were performed to identify the functional enrichment analysis of the DEGs and screen hub genes. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to select the potential prognostic DEGs in training dataset (GSE2658). The prognostic value of the potential prognostic genes was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier curve and validated in another external dataset (MMRF-CoMMpass cohort from TCGA). Results: Altogether, 403 up-regulated and 393 down-regulated DEGs were identified. GO analysis showed that the up-regulated DEGs were significantly enriched in innate immune response, inflammatory response, plasma membrane and integral component of membrane, while the down-regulated DEGs were mainly involved in protoporphyrinogen IX and heme biosynthetic process, hemoglobin complex and erythrocyte differentiation. KEGG pathway analysis suggested that the DEGs were significantly enriched in osteoclast differentiation, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. The top 10 hub genes, identified by the plug-in cytoHubba of the Cytoscape software using maximal clique centrality (MCC) algorithm, were ITGAM, MMP9, ITGB2, FPR2, C3AR1, CXCL1, CYBB, LILRB2, HP and FCER1G. Modules and corresponding GO enrichment analysis indicated that myeloma LC/SP cells were significantly associated with immune system, immune response and cell cycle. The predictive value of the prognostic model including TFF3, EPDR1, MACROD1, ARHGEF12, AMMECR1, NFATC2, HES6, PLEK2 and SNCA was identified, and validated in another external dataset (MMRF-CoMMpass cohort from TCGA). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study provides reliable molecular biomarkers for screening, prognosis, as well as novel therapeutic targets for myeloma LC/SP cells.

Salivary MMP-9 as a Biomarker for the Diagnosis of Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To compare the salivary MMP - 9 concentration among subjects with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMD), tobacco users, and control groups.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 88 subjects were enrolled and divided into four study groups viz., OSCC (n=24), OPMD (n=20), tobacco habits (n=22), and healthy controls (n=22). All subjects gave unstimulated saliva samples for the evaluation MMP - 9 by ELISA kit. Demographic information like age, gender, type of tobacco, and duration of the habit were recorded.

RESULTS

Subjects with OSCC and OPMD had significantly higher mean MMP-9 levels than subjects with tobacco habits and control groups (P<0.001). Also, poorly differentiated OSCC group had significantly higher mean saliva MMP-9 than moderate and well-differentiated OSCC. The optimal cut-off point was 214.37 ng/mL with a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 59% for OSCC versus the control group. The optimal cut-off point was as 205.87 ng/mL with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 54% for OPMD versus the control group.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained from this study indicated that OSCC and OPMD had an increased level of salivary MMP-9. Salivary MMP-9 could be a useful, non-invasive adjunct technique in the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of OSCC and OPMD. <br />.

Revealing the Reversal Effect of Galangal (Alpinia galanga L.) Extract Against Oxidative Stress in Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells and Normal Fibroblast Cells Intended as a Co- Chemotherapeutic and Anti-Ageing Agent

Objective:

This study intends to explore the potential of galangal extract as a co-chemotherapeutic agent through the analysis of its cytotoxic and migratory effects on metastatic breast cancer cells and as an anti-ageing agent through its senescence inhibitory effect on normal fibroblast cells.

Methods:

Galangal ethanolic extract (GE) was subjected to a cytotoxicity test with the 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay alone or in combination with doxorubicin (Dox) against 4T1 cells but not in NIH-3T3 cells. Evidence of senescent cells was detected using a SA-β galactosidase based assay. In addition, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), apoptosis, and cell cycle were measured with a flow cytometry-based assay. Meanwhile, cell migration and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 expression after GE treatment on 4T1 cells were measured using the scratch wound healing assay and gelatin zymography assay, respectively. The metabolomic profiles of GE were traced using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis.

Results:

GE effectively inhibited the growth of 4T1 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 135 µg/mL and increased the cytotoxic effect of Dox at concentrations of 50 and 100 µg/mL. GE increased the number of senescent cells arrested in the G2/M phase but did not cause apoptosis. This effect is compounded by increasing intracellular levels of ROS. However, GE reduced senescence to normal in fibroblast cells (NIH 3T3 cells) under oxidative stress by Dox without any changes in the ROS level. Moreover, GE also inhibited the migration of 4T1 cells and suppressed the expression of MMP-9 induced by Dox.

Conclusion:

Galangal has the potential for use as a co-chemotherapeutic agent by inducing senescence in correlation with increasing intracellular ROS toward metastatic breast cancer. However, the effect of GE in decreasing the senescence phenomena toward normal fibroblast cells illustrates its potential as a promising anti-ageing agent.

Ellagic Acid Inhibits Extracellular Acidity-Induced Invasiveness and Expression of COX1, COX2, Snail, Twist 1, and c-myc in Gastric Carcinoma Cells

Extracellular acidity has been implicated in enhanced malignancy and metastatic features in various cancer cells. Gastric cancer cell lines (AGS and SNU601) maintained in an acidic medium have increased motility and invasiveness. In this study, we investigated the effect of ellagic acid, a plant-derived phenolic compound, on the acidity-promoted migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Treating cells maintained in acidic medium with ellagic acid inhibited acidity-mediated migration and invasion, and reduced the expression of MMP7 and MMP9. Examining regulatory factors contributing to the acidity-mediated invasiveness, we found that an acidic pH increased the expression of COX1 and COX2; importantly, expression decreased under the ellagic acid treatment. The general COX inhibitor, sulindac, also decreased acidity-mediated invasion and expression of MMP7 and MMP9. In addition, acidity increased the mRNA protein expression of transcription factors snail, twist1, and c-myc; these were also reduced by ellagic acid. Together, these results suggest that ellagic acid suppresses acidity-enhanced migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells via inhibition of the expression of multiple factors (COX1, COX2, snail, twist1, and c-myc); for this reason, it may be an effective agent for cancer treatment under acidosis.

Ellagic Acid Inhibits Extracellular Acidity-Induced Invasiveness and Expression of COX1, COX2, Snail, Twist 1, and c-myc in Gastric Carcinoma Cells

Extracellular acidity has been implicated in enhanced malignancy and metastatic features in various cancer cells. Gastric cancer cell lines (AGS and SNU601) maintained in an acidic medium have increased motility and invasiveness. In this study, we investigated the effect of ellagic acid, a plant-derived phenolic compound, on the acidity-promoted migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Treating cells maintained in acidic medium with ellagic acid inhibited acidity-mediated migration and invasion, and reduced the expression of MMP7 and MMP9. Examining regulatory factors contributing to the acidity-mediated invasiveness, we found that an acidic pH increased the expression of COX1 and COX2; importantly, expression decreased under the ellagic acid treatment. The general COX inhibitor, sulindac, also decreased acidity-mediated invasion and expression of MMP7 and MMP9. In addition, acidity increased the mRNA protein expression of transcription factors snail, twist1, and c-myc; these were also reduced by ellagic acid. Together, these results suggest that ellagic acid suppresses acidity-enhanced migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells via inhibition of the expression of multiple factors (COX1, COX2, snail, twist1, and c-myc); for this reason, it may be an effective agent for cancer treatment under acidosis.

The anti-carcinogenesis properties of erianin in the modulation of oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis and immune response in liver cancer

In this study, erianin was found to reduce the viability of cancer cells, inhibit their proliferation and migration, induce G2/M phase arrest, enhance cancer cell apoptosis, promote an increase in levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species and a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, and regulate the expression levels of anti- and pro-apoptosis-related proteins in HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells. Erianin inhibited tumor growth in HepG2- and SMMC-7721-xenograft tumor nude mouse models, reduced the expression levels of anti-apoptosis proteins and enhanced the expression levels of pro-apoptosis proteins in tumor tissues. Erianin inhibited tumor growth in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice bearing heterotopic tumors. Among 111 types of cytokines detected in proteome profiling of tumor tissues, erianin substantially influenced levels of 38 types of cytokines in HepG2-xenografted tumors and of 15 types of cytokines in SMMC-7721-xenografted tumors, most of which are related to immune functions. Erianin strongly affected the serum levels of cytokines, and regulated the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and the expression levels of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream proteins in spleen. The anti-liver cancer properties of erianin were found to be related mostly to its modulation of oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis and immune response.

The Versatile Role of Matrix Metalloproteinase for the Diverse Results of Fibrosis Treatment

Fibrosis is a type of chronic organ failure, resulting in the excessive secretion of extracellular matrix (ECM). ECM protects wound tissue from infection and additional injury, and is gradually degraded during wound healing. For some unknown reasons, myofibroblasts (the cells that secrete ECM) do not undergo apoptosis; this is associated with the continuous secretion of ECM and reduced ECM degradation even during de novo tissue formation. Thus, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are considered to be a potential target of fibrosis treatment because they are the main groups of ECM-degrading enzymes. However, MMPs participate not only in ECM degradation but also in the development of various biological processes that show the potential to treat diseases such as stroke, cardiovascular diseases, and arthritis. Therefore, treatment involving the targeting of MMPs might impede typical functions. Here, we evaluated the links between these MMP functions and possible detrimental effects of fibrosis treatment, and also considered possible approaches for further applications.

Tamoxifen-induced alterations in the expression of selected matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2, -9, -10, and -13) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMP-2 and -3) in the chicken ovary

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of peptidases that disintegrate extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules associated with tissue remodeling, including reproductive tissues. Their actions are largely controlled by specific tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs). The role and regulation of MMPs in the chicken ovary is largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of tamoxifen (TMX; estrogen receptor modulator) treatment on the expression of selected members of the MMP system in the laying hen ovary. The activity of MMP-2 and -9 was also examined. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analyses revealed changes in mRNA and/or protein expression of MMP-2, -9, -10, -13, TIMP-2, and TIMP-3 in the following ovarian follicles after TMX treatment: white (WF), yellowish (YF), small yellow (SYF), and the largest yellow preovulatory (F3-F1). The response to TMX depended on the stage of follicle development and the layer of follicular wall. Moreover, ovarian regression following TMX treatment was accompanied by both an increase in total activity of MMP-2 in the theca layer of F3-F2 and granulosa layer of F2, and a decrease in total activity of MMP-2 in the WF, YF, and SYF, and MMP-9 in theca of F3-F1. In conclusion, the TMX-induced changes in MMP-2, -9, -10, and -13, and TIMP-2 and -3 mRNA expression, as well as MMP-2 and -9 activity, were dependent on tissue and the stage of follicular maturation. Our findings strongly suggests a role for estrogen in regulating the transcription, translation, and/or posttranslational activity of members of the MMP system. Further, these components may be involved in the orchestration of ECM turnover and cellular functions during ovary regression, which occur under conditions of reduced estrogenic activity.

Impact of the Different Preparation Methods to Obtain Human Adipose-Derived Stromal Vascular Fraction Cells (AD-SVFs) and Human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (AD-MSCs): Enzymatic Digestion Versus Mechanical Centrifugation

Autologous therapies using adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (AD-SVFs) and adult adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) warrant careful preparation of the harvested adipose tissue. Currently, no standardized technique for this preparation exists. Processing quantitative standards (PQSs) define manufacturing quantitative variables (such as time, volume, and pressure). Processing qualitative standards (PQLSs) define the quality of the materials and methods in manufacturing. The purpose of the review was to use PQSs and PQLSs to report the in vivo and in vitro results obtained by different processing kits that use different procedures (enzymatic vs. non-enzymatic) to isolate human AD-SVFs/AD-MSCs. PQSs included the volume of fat tissue harvested and reagents used, the time/gravity of centrifugation, and the time, temperature, and tilt level/speed of incubation and/or centrifugation. PQLSs included the use of a collagenase, a processing time of 30 min, kit weight, transparency of the kit components, the maintenance of a closed sterile processing environment, and the use of a small centrifuge and incubating rocker. Using a kit with the PQSs and PQLSs described in this study enables the isolation of AD-MSCs that meet the consensus quality criteria. As the discovery of new critical quality attributes (CQAs) of AD-MSCs evolve with respect to purity and potency, adjustments to these benchmark PQSs and PQLs will hopefully isolate AD-MSCs of various CQAs with greater reproducibility, quality, and safety. Confirmatory studies will no doubt need to be completed.

An Investigation on the Therapeutic Potential of Butein, A Tretrahydroxychalcone Against Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background:

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the most predominant cancers in India. With advances in the field of oncology, a number of therapies have emerged; however, they are minimally effective. Consequently, there is a need to develop safe and effective regimens for the treatment of OSCC. Butein, a tetrahydroxychalcone has been found to exhibit potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and also anti-tumor effects against several cancer types. However, its effect on OSCC is not studied yet.

Methods:

The effect of butein on the viability, apoptosis, migration and invasion of OSCC cells was evaluated using MTT, colony formation, PI/FACS, live and dead, scratch wound healing, and matrigel invasion assays. Further Western blot analysis was done to evaluate the expression of different proteins involved in the regulation of cancer hallmarks.

Results:

This is the first report exemplifying the anti-cancer effect of butein against OSCC. Our results showed that butein exhibited potent anti-proliferative, cytotoxic, anti-migratory, and anti-invasive effects in OSCC cells. It suppressed the expression of NF-κB and NF-κB-regulated gene products such as COX-2, survivin and MMP-9 which are involved in the regulation of different processes like proliferation, survival, invasion, and metastasis of OSCC cells.

Conclusion

Collectively, these results suggest that butein has immense potential in the management of OSCC. Nonetheless, in vivo validation is critical before moving to clinical trials.

Extracellular binding of indinavir to matrix metalloproteinase-2 and the alpha-7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: implications for use in cancer treatment

Introduction

Results from recent studies have suggested a role for protease inhibitors in altering mechanisms involved in the initiation and proliferation of cancer cells. One such inhibitor, indinavir, may act as an anti-cancer agent by modulating the alpha-7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which is a pro-carcinogenic protein that has been researched in conjunction with nicotine in lung cancer development. In our study, we compare indinavir's binding affinity towards α7-nAchR and MMP-2, another promoter of malignancy, to determine what extracellular effects the drug has before being internalized to inhibit HIV-1 protease.

Methods

A computer program, PyRx, was used to compare indinavir's binding affinity with digital models for α7-nAchR, MMP-2 and HIV-1 protease, which were then compared to the results of in vitro binding assays for these targets.

Results

PyRx testing predicted the highest binding affinity values for indinavir to MMP-2 (mean = 8.77 kcal/mol, S.D. = 0.29), followed by the α7-nAchR (mean = 8.53 kcal/mol, S.D. = 0.15) and HIV-1 protease (mean = 7.5 kcal/mol, S.D. = 0.44). In vitro, indinavir's mean percent inhibition of control values were 103.2 for HIV-1 protease, 5.3 for MMP-2, and 7.7 for the α7-nAchR.

Conclusions

Binding affinity values for indinavir to MMP-2 and α7-nAchR were not significantly different. Using PyRx to predict affinity compared with in vitro testing did not yield comparable results. However, indinavir was shown to slightly inhibit both α7-nAchR and MMP-2, which may have ramifications in the drug's delivery to the intracellularly located HIV-1 protease.

Bifunctional liposomes reduce the chemotherapy resistance of doxorubicin induced by reactive oxygen species

Doxorubicin (DOX) liposome is a widely used nano-medicine for colorectal cancer treatment. However, doxorubicin therapy increases the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tumor cells, such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which can stabilize hypoxia-inducible-factor-1α (HIF-1α). In a tumor hypoxic microenvironment, HIF-1 can up-regulate tumor-resistance related proteins, including P-glycoprotein (P-gp), glucose transporter 1 (GLUT-1), and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), leading to tumor tolerance to chemotherapy. The functional inhibition of HIF-1 can overcome this resistance and enhance the efficacy of tumor therapy. Here, we encapsulated one of the most effective HIF-1 inhibitors, acriflavine (ACF), and DOX in liposomes (DOX-ACF@Lipo) to construct bifunctional liposomes. ACF and DOX, released from DOX-ACF@Lipo, could effectively suppress the function of HIF-1 and the process of DNA replication, respectively. Consequently, the bifunctional liposome has great potential to be applied in clinics to overcome chemotherapy resistance induced by hypoxia.

Hydroxytyrosol Supplementation Modifies Plasma Levels of Tissue Inhibitor of Metallopeptidase 1 in Women with Breast Cancer

The etiology of breast cancer can be very different. Most antineoplastic drugs are not selective against tumor cells and also affect normal cells, leading to a wide variety of adverse reactions such as the production of free radicals by altering the redox state of the organisms. Therefore, the objective of this study was to elucidate if hydroxytyrosol (HT) (an antioxidant present in extra virgin olive oil) has a chemomodulatory effect when combined with the chemotherapeutic drugs epirubicin and cyclophosphamide followed by taxanes in breast cancer patients. Changes in plasma levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) throughout the chemotherapy treatment were studied. Both molecules are involved in cell proliferation, apoptosis, neoangiogenesis, and metastasis in breast cancer patients. Women with breast cancer were divided into two groups: a group of patients receiving a dietary supplement of HT and a control group of patients receiving placebo. The results showed that the plasma levels of TIMP-1 in the group of patients receiving HT were significantly lower than those levels found in the control group after the epirubicin-cyclophosphamide chemotherapy.

Molecular Imaging Probes Based on Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors (MMPIs)

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc- and calcium-dependent endopeptidases which are secreted or anchored in the cell membrane and are capable of degrading the multiple components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). MMPs are frequently overexpressed or highly activated in numerous human diseases. Owing to the important role of MMPs in human diseases, many MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) have been developed as novel therapeutics, and some of them have entered clinical trials. However, so far, only one MMPI (doxycycline) has been approved by the FDA. Therefore, the evaluation of the activity of a specific subset of MMPs in human diseases using clinically relevant imaging techniques would be a powerful tool for the early diagnosis and assessment of the efficacy of therapy. In recent years, numerous MMPIs labeled imaging agents have emerged. This article begins by providing an overview of the MMP subfamily and its structure and function. The latest advances in the design of subtype selective MMPIs and their biological evaluation are then summarized. Subsequently, the potential use of MMPI-labeled diagnostic agents in clinical imaging techniques are discussed, including positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and optical imaging (OI). Finally, this article concludes with future perspectives and clinical utility.

Evaluation of multiplexed biomarkers in assessment of CSF infiltration in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a very common pediatric malignancy with high survival rates. The course of treatment is modified according to the occurrence of central nervous system (CNS) disease. Aim: To relate serum and cerebrospinal fluid levels of five biomarkers (matrix metalloprotienase 9, CCL-2, sVCAM-1, IFN-γ and inducible protein 10) at diagnosis to the development of CNS infiltration. Methods: The present study was carried on 64 children with ALL and 20 controls. Multiplexed cytokines were measured by Luminex technology (Matrix metalloprotienase 9, CCL-2, sVCAM-1, IFN-γ and inducible protein 10). Results: Significantly higher sMMP-9 and lower sCCL2 were found in patients who developed CNS leukemia. Conclusion: Serum multiplexed parameters at diagnosis of childhood ALL may predict of development of CNS leukemia.

The Effects of Adipocytes on the Regulation of Breast Cancer in the Tumor Microenvironment: An Update

Obesity is a global pandemic and it is well evident that obesity is associated with the development of many disorders including many cancer types. Breast cancer is one of that associated with a high mortality rate. Adipocytes, a major cellular component in adipose tissue, are dysfunctional during obesity and also known to promote breast cancer development both in vitro and in vivo. Dysfunctional adipocytes can release metabolic substrates, adipokines, and cytokines, which promote proliferation, progression, invasion, and migration of breast cancer cells. The secretion of adipocytes can alter gene expression profile, induce inflammation and hypoxia, as well as inhibit apoptosis. It is known that excessive free fatty acids, cholesterol, triglycerides, hormones, leptin, interleukins, and chemokines upregulate breast cancer development. Interestingly, adiponectin is the only adipokine that has anti-tumor properties. Moreover, adipocytes are also related to chemotherapeutic resistance, resulting in the poorer outcome of treatment and advanced stages in breast cancer. Evaluation of the adipocyte secretion levels in the circulation can be useful for prognosis and evaluation of the effectiveness of cancer therapy in the patients. Therefore, understanding about functions of adipocytes as well as obesity in breast cancer may reveal novel targets that support the development of new anti-tumor therapy. In this systemic review, we summarize and update the effects of secreted factors by adipocytes on the regulation of breast cancer in the tumor microenvironment.

Tumor suppressive functions of LZTFL1 in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. The poor survival may be due to tumor recurrence and metastasis. Growing evidence indicates that Leucine Zipper Transcription Factor-like 1 (LZTFL1) plays an important role in tumor progression of several cancers such as lung cancer and gastric cancer. Methods: Real-time PCR was performed to evaluate LZTFL1 expression level in HCC cell lines and patient specimens. The relationship between LZTFL1 expression and the clinicopathological data of the patients was analyzed. Stable cell lines with overexpressing LZTFL1 were set-up, and the cell proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities were analyzed. The protein expression was measured by Western blotting. Results: Here, we found LZTFL1 expression was decreased in human HCC specimens and HCC cell lines. Downregulation of LZTFL1 expression was correlated with tumor stage and metastasis. The ectopic overexpression of LZTFL1 inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and the expression of MMP9. In addition, LZTFL1 suppressed epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). Conclusion: Taken together, our results highlight the tumor suppressive role of LZTFL1 in HCC, suggesting that LZTFL1 may represent a potential therapeutic strategy for treating patients with HCC.

Circadian protein BMAL1 promotes breast cancer cell invasion and metastasis by up-regulating matrix metalloproteinase9 expression

Background

Metastasis is an important factor in the poor prognosis of breast cancer. As an important core clock protein, brain and muscle arnt-like 1 (BMAL1) is closely related to tumorigenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate the role of BMAL1 in invasion and metastasis remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the BMAL1 may take a crucial effect in the progression of breast cancer cells.

Methods

BMAL1 and MMP9 expression was measured in breast cell lines. Transwell and scratch wound-healing assays were used to detect the movement of cells and MTT assays and clonal formation assays were used to assess cells’ proliferation. The effects of BMAL1 on the MMP9/NF-κB pathway were examined by western blotting, co-immunoprecipitation and mammalian two-hybrid.

Results

In our study, it showed that cell migration and invasion were significantly enhanced when overexpressed BMAL1. Functionally, overexpression BMAL1 significantly increased the mRNA and protein level of matrix metalloproteinase9 (MMP9) and improved the activity of MMP9. Moreover, BMAL1 activated the NF-κB signaling pathway by increasing the phosphorylation of IκB and promoted human MMP9 promoter activity by interacting with NF-kB p65, leading to increased expression of MMP9. When overexpressed BMAL1, CBP (CREB binding protein) was recruited to enhance the activity of p65 and further activate the NF-κB signaling pathway to regulate the expression of its downstream target genes, including MMP9, TNFα, uPA and IL8, and then promote the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer cells.

Conclusions

This study confirmed a new mechanism by which BMAL1 up-regulated MMP9 expression to increase breast cancer metastasis, to provide research support for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.

Natriuretic peptide receptor a promotes breast cancer development by upregulating MMP9

Natriuretic peptide receptor A (NPRA), one of the natriuretic peptide receptors, plays important roles in circulatory system. Recently some studies showed that NPRA was involved in tumorigenesis, however, its role in the development of breast cancer remains unclear. In this study, we observed that NPRA expression was upregulated in breast cancer tissues and NPRA high expression was associated with poor clinicopathological features. In addition, we found that patients with high NPRA expression had a worse 5-year survival and NPRA was an independent factor for predicting the prognosis of breast cancer patients. Knocking down NPRA expression reduced the proliferation, migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Overexpressing NPRA was able to enhance the malignant behaviors of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, NPRA promoted the invasive phenotype through upregulating matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9). Mechanistically, NPRA increased MMP9 expression through activating STAT3. We identified that NPRA might serve as a prognostic marker and p-STAT3 and MMP9 could be a potential target of NPRA in breast cancer patients.

Local and Systemic IL-7 Concentration in Gastrointestinal-Tract Cancers

Background and objectives: Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is exploited in cancer immunotherapies although its status in solid tumors is largely unknown. We aimed to determine its systemic and local concentrations in esophageal (EC), gastric (GC), and colorectal (CRC) cancers. Materials and Methods: IL-7 was immunoenzymatically measured in paired surgical specimens of tumors and tumor-adjacent tissue (n = 48), and in the sera of 170 individuals (54 controls and 116 cancer patients). Results: IL-7 was higher in tumors as compared to noncancerous tissue in all cancers (mean difference: 29.5 pg/g). The expression ratio (tumor to normal) was 4.4-fold in GC, 2.2-fold in EC, and 1.7-fold in CRC. However, when absolute concentrations were compared, the highest IL-7 concentrations were in CRC, both when tumor and noncancerous tissue were analyzed. In CRC tumors, IL-7 was 2 and 1.5 times higher than in EC and GC tumors. In noncancerous CRC tissue, IL-7 was 2.3- and 2.8-fold higher than in EC and GC. IL-7 overexpression was more pronounced in Stage 3/4 and N1 cancers as a result of decreased cytokine expression in noncancerous tissue. Tumor location was a key factor in determining both local and systemic IL-7 concentrations. Serum IL-7 in CRC and EC was higher than in controls, GC, and patients with adenocarcinoma of gastric cardia (CC), but no significant correlation with the disease advancement could be observed. Conclusions: IL-7 protein is overexpressed in EC, GC, and CRC, but concentrations differ both in tumor and tumor-adjacent tissue with respect to tumor location. More advanced cancers have lower IL-7 concentrations in the immediate environment of the tumor. At the systemic level, IL-7 is elevated in CRC and EC, but not CC or GC. IL-7 dependence on the location of the primary tumor should be taken into account in future IL-7-based immunotherapies. Functional studies explaining a role of IL-7 in gastrointestinal cancers are needed.

Association of autoimmunity and cancer: An emphasis on proteolytic enzymes

Cancer and autoimmune diseases are the two devastating conditions that together constitute a leading health problem worldwide. The rising burden of these disorders in the developing world demands a multifaceted approach to address the challenges it poses. Understanding the root causes and specific molecular mechanisms by which the progression of the diseases takes place is need of the hour. A strong inflammatory background and common developmental pathways, such as activation of immune cells, proliferation, increased cell survival and migration which are controlled by growth factors and inflammatory cytokines have been considered as the critical culprits in the progression and complications of these disorders. Enzymes are the potential immune modulators which regulate various inflammatory events and can break the circulating immune complexes via macrophages production. In the current manuscript, we have uncovered the possible role of proteolytic enzymes in the pathogenesis and progression of cancer and autoimmune diseases. In the light of the available scientific literature, we advocate in-depth comprehensive studies which will shed light towards the role of proteolytic enzymes in the modulation of inflammatory responses in cancer and autoimmune diseases together.

The extracellular matrix in tumor progression and metastasis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) constitutes the scaffold of tissues and organs. It is a complex network of extracellular proteins, proteoglycans and glycoproteins, which form supramolecular aggregates, such as fibrils and sheet-like networks. In addition to its biochemical composition, including the covalent intermolecular cross-linkages, the ECM is also characterized by its biophysical parameters, such as topography, molecular density, stiffness/rigidity and tension. Taking these biochemical and biophysical parameters into consideration, the ECM is very versatile and undergoes constant remodeling. This review focusses on this remodeling of the ECM under the influence of a primary solid tumor mass. Within this tumor stroma, not only the cancer cells but also the resident fibroblasts, which differentiate into cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), modify the ECM. Growth factors and chemokines, which are tethered to and released from the ECM, as well as metabolic changes of the cells within the tumor bulk, add to the tumor-supporting tumor microenvironment. Metastasizing cancer cells from a primary tumor mass infiltrate into the ECM, which variably may facilitate cancer cell migration or act as barrier, which has to be proteolytically breached by the infiltrating tumor cell. The biochemical and biophysical properties therefore determine the rates and routes of metastatic dissemination. Moreover, primed by soluble factors of the primary tumor, the ECM of distant organs may be remodeled in a way to facilitate the engraftment of metastasizing cancer cells. Such premetastatic niches are responsible for the organotropic preference of certain cancer entities to colonize at certain sites in distant organs and to establish a metastasis. Translational application of our knowledge about the cancer-primed ECM is sparse with respect to therapeutic approaches, whereas tumor-induced ECM alterations such as increased tissue stiffness and desmoplasia, as well as breaching the basement membrane are hallmark of malignancy and diagnostically and histologically harnessed.

MYB promotes the growth and metastasis of salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma

The incidence of recurrent t(6;9) translocation of the MYB proto-oncogene to NFIB (the gene that encodes nuclear factor 1 B-type) in adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) tumour tissues is high. However, MYB [the gene that encodes transcriptional activator Myb (MYB)] overexpression is more common, indicating that MYB serves a key role in ACC. The current study aimed to investigate the role of MYB in salivary (S)ACC growth and metastasis. A total of 50 fresh-frozen SACC tissues and 41 fresh-frozen normal submandibular gland (SMG) tissues were collected to measure MYB mRNA expression, and to analyse the associations between MYB and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers. Compared with normal SMG tissue, SACC tissues demonstrated significantly increased MYB expression, with a high expression rate of 90%. Interestingly, MYB tended to be negatively correlated with CDH1 [the gene that encodes cadherin-1 (E-cadherin)] and positively correlated with VIM (the gene that encodes vimentin), suggesting that MYB is associated with SACC metastasis. To explore the role of MYB in SACC, the authors stably overexpressed and knocked down MYB in SACC cells. The authors of the current study demonstrated that MYB overexpression promoted SACC cell proliferation, migration and invasion, whereas its knockdown inhibited these activities. Additionally, when MYB was overexpressed, CDH1 expression was downregulated, and CDH2 (the gene that encodes cadherin-2), VIM and ACTA2 (the gene that encodes actin, aortic smooth muscle) expression was upregulated. Then, the effect of MYB on lung tumour metastasis was investigated in vivo in non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency mice. MYB overexpressing and control cells were injected into the mice through the tail vein. The results revealed that MYB promoted SACC lung metastasis. Collectively, these results demonstrated that MYB is aberrantly overexpressed in SACC tissues, and promotes SACC cell proliferation and metastasis, indicating that MYB may be a novel therapeutic target for SACC.

Caveolin-1: a multifaceted driver of breast cancer progression and its application in clinical treatment

Human breast cancer is one of the most frequent cancer diseases and causes of death among female population worldwide. It appears at a high incidence and has a high malignancy, mortality, recurrence rate and poor prognosis. Caveolin-1 (Cav1) is the main component of caveolae and participates in various biological events. More and more experimental studies have shown that Cav1 plays a critical role in the progression of breast cancer including cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, invasion, migration and breast cancer metastasis. Besides, Cav1 has been found to be involved in chemotherapeutics and radiotherapy resistance, which are still the principal problems encountered in clinical breast cancer treatment. In addition, stromal Cav1 may be a potential indicator for breast cancer patients’ prognosis. In the current review, we cover the state-of-the-art study, development and progress on Cav1 and breast cancer, altogether describing the role of Cav1 in breast cancer progression and application in clinical treatment, in the hope of providing a basis for further research and promoting CAV1 gene as a potential target to diagnose and treat aggressive breast cancers.

Expression of Proteolytic Enzymes by Small Cell Lung Cancer Circulating Tumor Cell Lines

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive type of lung cancer which disseminates vigorously and has a dismal prognosis. Metastasis of SCLC is linked to an extremely high number of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), which form chemoresistant spheroids, termed tumorospheres. Intravasation and extravasation during tumor spread requires the activity of a number of proteases to disintegrate the stroma and vascular tissue. Generation of several permanent SCLC CTC lines allowed us to screen for the expression of 35 proteases using Western blot arrays. Cell culture supernatants of two CTC lines, namely BHGc7 and 10, were analyzed for secreted proteases, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), ADAM/TS, cathepsins, kallikreins, and others, and compared to proteases expressed by SCLC cell lines (GLC14, GLC16, NCI-H526 and SCLC26A). In contrast to NCI-H526 and SCLC26A, MMP-9 was highly expressed in the two CTC lines and in GLC16 derived of a relapse. Furthermore, cathepsins (S, V, X/Z/P, A and D) were highly expressed in the CTC lines, whereas ADAM/TS and kallikreins were not detectable. In conclusion, SCLC CTCs express MMP-9 and a range of cathepsins for proteolysis and, aside from tissue degradation, these enzymes are involved in cell signaling, survival, and the chemoresistance of tumor cells.