Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles

Management status of waste lithium-ion batteries in China and a complete closed-circuit recycling process

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) were used extensively in people's lives, especially with the vigorous promotion of new energy vehicles, which led to the generation of a large number of waste LIBs. In consideration of the enormous quantity, environmental risk, and resource properties, many countries have issued a series of laws and regulations to manage waste LIBs and developed a lot of recycling technologies. As the biggest producer of batteries in the world, China has also taken necessary measures to deal with this situation. This paper presents the latest regulations of waste LIBs in China and reviews the recycling strategies of waste LIBs, especially physical recycling methods. Based on the analysis of the current management status of waste LIBs in China and the recycling technologies, some management suggestions, and a complete closed-circuit recycling process including cascade utilization and resource recovery were put forward. A rough economic evaluation of the process was also conducted to demonstrate the economic feasibility of the proposed process. The purpose of this paper is to provide some valuable references for decision-making bodies in the improvement of waste lithium-ion battery management and to provide an environmentally friendly and industrial feasible recycling process for reference.

Financial viability of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling

Economically viable electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling is increasingly needed; however routes to profitability are still unclear. We present a comprehensive, holistic techno-economic model as a framework to directly compare recycling locations and processes, providing a key tool for recycling cost optimization in an international battery recycling economy. We show that recycling can be economically viable, with cost/profit ranging from (−21.43 - +21.91) $·kWh⁻¹ but strongly depends on transport distances, wages, pack design and recycling method. Comparing commercial battery packs, the Tesla Model S emerges as the most profitable, having low disassembly costs and high revenues for its cobalt. In-country recycling is suggested, to lower emissions and transportation costs and secure the materials supply chain. Our model thus enables identification of strategies for recycling profitability.

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Comprehensive techno-economic cost model for electric vehicle battery recycling

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Net recycling profits for recycling in Asia, Europe, and the US are compared

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Reducing transportation and disassembly costs is crucial for a profitable process

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Economies of scale and battery materials are decisive for recycling profits

Semi-Autonomous Behaviour Tree-Based Framework for Sorting Electric Vehicle Batteries Components

The process of recycling electric vehicle (EV) batteries currently represents a significant challenge to the waste management automation industry. One example of it is the necessity of removing and sorting dismantled components from EV battery pack. This paper proposes a novel framework to semi-automate the process of removing and sorting different objects from an EV battery pack using a mobile manipulator. The work exploits the Behaviour Trees model for cognitive task execution and monitoring, which links different robot capabilities such as navigation, object tracking and motion planning in a modular fashion. The framework was tested in simulation, in both static and dynamic environments, and it was evaluated based on task time and the number of objects that the robot successfully placed in the respective containers. Results suggested that the robot’s success rate in accomplishing the task of sorting the battery components was 95% and 82% in static and dynamic environments, respectively.

Direct recovery of degraded LiCoO2 cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries: Efficient impurity removal toward practical applications

Regenerating cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) permits an effective approach to resolve resource shortage and environmental pollution in the increasing battery industry. Directly renovating the spent cathode materials is a promising way, but it is still challenging to efficiently remove all of the complex impurities (such as binder, carbon black, graphite and current collectors) without destroying the material structure in the electrode. Herein, a facile strategy to directly remove these impurities and simultaneously repair the degraded LiCoO₂ by a target healing method is reported. Specifically, by using an optimized molten salt system of LiOH-KOH (molar ratio of 3:7) where LiNO₃ and O₂ both serve as oxidants, the impurities can be completely removed, while the structure, composition and morphology of degraded LiCoO₂ can be successfully repaired to commercial level based on a two-stage heating process (300 °C for 8 h and 500 °C for 16 h, respectively), resulting in a high recovery rate of approximately 100% for cathode material. More importantly, the regenerated LiCoO₂ exhibits a high reversible capacity, good cycling stability and excellent rate capability, which are comparable with commercial LiCoO₂. This work demonstrates an efficient approach to recycle and reuse advanced energy materials.

Ionic Liquid (IL) Laden Metal-Organic Framework (IL-MOF) Electrolyte for Quasi-Solid-State Sodium Batteries

An ionic liquid (IL) laden metal-organic framework (MOF) sodium-ion electrolyte has been developed for ambient-temperature quasi-solid-state sodium batteries. The MOF skeleton is designed according to a UIO-66 (Universitetet i Oslo) structure. A sodium sulfonic (-SO₃Na) group grafted to the UIO-based MOF ligand improves the Na⁺-ion conductivity. Upon lading with a sodium-based ionic liquid (Na-IL), sodium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (NaTFSI) in 1-n-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (Bmpyr-TFSI), the Na-IL laden sulfonated UIO-66 (UIOSNa) quasi-solid electrolyte exhibits a Na⁺-ion conductivity of 3.6 × 10^-4 S cm^-1 at ambient temperature. Quasi-solid-state sodium batteries with the Na-IL/UIOSNa electrolyte are demonstrated with a layered Na₃Ni_1.5TeO₆ cathode and sodium-metal anode. The quasi-solid-state Na∥Na-IL/UIOSNa∥Na₃Ni_1.5TeO₆ cells show remarkable cycling performance.

In Situ Recombination of Elements in Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries to Recover High-Value γ-LiAlO2 and LiAl5O8

Recovering valuable materials from spent lithium-ion batteries is an important task because of the asymmetry in resource distribution, supply, and demand around the world. A lithium-ion battery is a combination system of various elements and their oxides. Current recovering technologies focus on the separation of valuable metal elements. They can inescapably bring secondary contamination and cost to the environment due to the addition of leachants and precipitants. To recover valuable materials, in situ recombination of elements in spent lithium-ion batteries can be a more economical and environment-friendly solution. Herein, we developed a technology based on in situ aluminothermic reduction and interstitial solid solution transformation to recover high-value γ-LiAlO₂ and LiAl₅O₈ under vacuum and high-temperature (1723 K) conditions. It was found that the process of Li₂O filling into the lattice of O-Al-O structure is an energy-reducing process, while LiAl₅O₈ was an existing high-energy transition-state matter. Since there was no wastewater generated, the process brought a new environment-friendly method for recovering valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. This study also provides new comprehension regarding the design for high-value products' recovery from multi-element mixed wastes on an atomic scale.

A green, efficient, closed-loop direct regeneration technology for reconstructing of the LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide in the spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs) contains a lot of lithium, nickel, cobalt and manganese. However, how to effectively recover these valuable metals under the premise of reducing environmental pollution is still a challenge. In this work, a green, efficient, closed-loop direct regeneration technology is proposed to reconstruct LiNi_0.5Co_0.2Mn_0.3O₂ (NCM523) cathode materials from spent LIBs. Firstly, the failure mechanism of NCM523 cathode materials in the spent LIBs is analyzed deeply. It is found that the spent NCM523 material has problems such as the dissolution of lithium and transition metals, surface interface failure and structural transformation, resulting in serious deterioration of electrochemical performance. Then NCM523 material was directly regenerated by supplementing metal ions, granulation, ion doping and heat treatment. Meanwhile, PO₄^3- polyanions were doped into the regenerated NCM material in the recovery process, showing excellent electrochemical performance with discharge capacity of 189.8 mAh g^-1 at 0.1 C. The recovery process proposed in this study puts forward a new strategy for the recovery various lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (e.g., LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂, LiNi_0.5Co_0.2Mn_0.3O₂, LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂ and LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂) and accelerates the industrialization of spent lithium ion battery recycling.

Direct Recycling R&D at the ReCell Center

The expected rapid growth in electric vehicle deployment will inevitably be followed by a corresponding rise in the supply of end-of-life vehicles and their lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The batteries may be reused, but will eventually be spent and provide a potential domestic resource that can help supply materials for future battery production. However, commercial recycling processes depend on profits from recovery of cobalt, use of which is being reduced in new cathode chemistries. The U.S. Department of Energy, therefore, established the ReCell Center in early 2019 to develop robust LIB recycling technology that would be economical even for batteries that contain no cobalt. The central feature of the technology is recovery of the cathode material with its unique crystalline cathode morphology intact in order to retain its value and functionality. Other materials are recovered as well in order to maximize revenues and minimize waste-handling costs. Analysis and modeling serve to evaluate and compare process options so that we can identify those that will be most economical while still minimizing energy use and environmental impacts. This paper provides background and describes highlights of the center’s first 2 years of operation.

Double Confined MoO2/Sn/NC@NC Nanotubes: Solid-Liquid Synthesis, Conformal Transformation, and Excellent Lithium-Ion Storage

The rational design of a hollow heterostructure promotes the development of highly durable anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Herein, carbon-confined MoO₂/Sn/NC@NC heterostructured nanotubes evolving from MoO₃ nanorods have been successfully synthesized for the first time. In the growth of the Mo/Sn precursor, a peculiar microstructure evolution occurs from solid rods to hollow tubes through a solid-liquid reaction. The MoO₂/Sn composite is restricted within the double carbon layer after subsequent annealing and carbonization that distinctly inherits the morphology of the Mo/Sn precursor. The resulting electrode shows good capacities with hardly any attenuation (925.4 mA h g^-1 after 100 cycles at 100 mA g^-1) and excellent long cycle life (620.1 mA h g^-1 after 1000 cycles at 2 A g^-1). The MoO₂/Sn/NC@NC nanotubes contain the synergistic effect, elaborate core-shell structure, large specific surface areas, and abundant voids. These superiorities not only provide beneficial channels for the electrolyte to fully come into contact with electrode materials and more active sites for redox reactions but also effectively alleviate the volume fluctuation and sustain the electrical connectivity to retain a stable solid-electrolyte interface layer, indeed, bringing about the prominent Li-storage performance. The present study paves a feasible avenue to prepare core-shell structures with high reversible capacity and long-term cycle performance for energy storage devices.

Recovery and Reuse of Composite Cathode Binder in Lithium Ion Batteries

Here, we investigate the recovery and reuse of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders from both homemade and commercial cathode films in Li ion batteries. We find that PVDF solubility depends on whether the polymer is an isolated powder or cast into a composite film. A mixture of tetrahydrofuran:N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (THF : NMP, 50 : 50 v/v) at 90 °C delaminates composite cathodes from Al current collectors and yields pure PVDF as characterized by 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). PVDF recovered from Li ion cells post-cycling exhibits similar performance to pristine PVDF. These data suggest that PVDF can be extracted and reused during Li ion battery recycling while simultaneously eliminating the formation of HF etchants, providing an incentive for use in direct cathode recycling.

Assessment of battery utilization and energy consumption in the large-scale development of urban electric vehicles

Electrifying transportation in the form of the large-scale development of electric vehicles (EVs) plays a pivotal role in reducing urban atmospheric pollution and alleviating fossil fuel dependence. However, the rising scale of EV deployment is exposing problems that were previously hidden in small-scale EV applications, and the lack of large-scale EV operating data deters relevant explorations. Here, we report several issues related to the battery utilization and energy consumption of urban-scale EVs by connecting three unique datasets of real-world operating states of over 3 million Chinese EVs, operational data, and vehicle feature data. Meanwhile, by incorporating climatic data and EV data outside China, we extend our models to several metropolitan areas worldwide. We find that blindly increasing the battery energy of urban EVs could be detrimental to sustainable development. The impact of changes in the energy consumption of EVs would be exacerbated in large-scale EV utilization, especially during seasonal shifts. For instance, even with a constant monthly driving demand, the average energy consumption of Beijing light-duty EVs would change by up to 21% during winter-spring shifts. Our results may also prove useful for research on battery resources, urban power supply, environmental impacts, and policymaking.

Demystifying the Lattice Oxygen Redox in Layered Oxide Cathode Materials of Lithium-Ion Batteries

The practical application of lithium-ion batteries suffers from low energy density and the struggle to satisfy the ever-growing requirements of the energy-storage Internet. Therefore, developing next-generation electrode materials with high energy density is of the utmost significance. There are high expectations with respect to the development of lattice oxygen redox (LOR)-a promising strategy for developing cathode materials as it renders nearly a doubling of the specific capacity. However, challenges have been put forward toward the deep-seated origins of the LOR reaction and if its whole potential could be effectively realized in practical application. In the following Review, the intrinsic science that induces the LOR activity and crystal structure evolution are extensively discussed. Moreover, a variety of characterization techniques for investigating these behaviors are presented. Furthermore, we have highlighted the practical restrictions and outlined the probable approaches of Li-based layered oxide cathodes for improving such materials to meet the practical applications.

Flexible FeS@Fe2O3/CNT composite films as self-supporting anodes for high-performance lithium-ion batteries

The transition metal sulfides/oxides have been considered as promising anode materials for lithium ion batteries due to their high theoretical capacities but have suffered limits from the unsatisfactory electronic conductivity and limited lifespan. Here, FeS micro-flowers are synthesized by hydrothermal treatment and are wared and grafted into layer-by-layer carbon nanotubes (CNT). Subsequently, FeS@Fe₂O₃/CNT composite films are obtained by annealing, during which the FeS micro-flowers are partially oxidized to core-shell FeS@Fe₂O₃micro-flowers. The FeS@Fe₂O₃/CNT composite electrodes exhibited high reversible capacity of 1722.4 mAh g^-1(at a current density of 0.2 A g^-1after 100 cycles) and excellent cycling stability (545.1 mAh g^-1at a current density of 2 A g^-1after 600 cycles) as self-supporting anodes. The prominent electrochemical performances are attributed to the unique reciprocal overlap architecture. This structure serves as a cushion to buffer large volume expansion during discharge/charge cycles, and ameliorates electrical conductivity. Due to their good specific capacity and cycle stability, these FeS@Fe₂O₃/CNT films have high potential application value to be used as high-performance anodes for lithium-ion, lithium sulfur and flexible packaging batteries.

Stationary, Second Use Battery Energy Storage Systems and Their Applications: A Research Review

The global demand for electricity is rising due to the increased electrification of multiple sectors of economic activity and an increased focus on sustainable consumption. Simultaneously, the share of cleaner electricity generated by transient, renewable sources such as wind and solar energy is increasing. This has made additional buffer capacities for electrical grids necessary. Battery energy storage systems have been investigated as storage solutions due to their responsiveness, efficiency, and scalability. Storage systems based on the second use of discarded electric vehicle batteries have been identified as cost-efficient and sustainable alternatives to first use battery storage systems. Large quantities of such batteries with a variety of capacities and chemistries are expected to be available in the future, as electric vehicles are more widely adopted. These batteries usually still possess about 80% of their initial capacity and can be used in storage solutions for high-energy as well as high-power applications, and even hybrid solutions encompassing both. There is, however, no holistic review of current research on this topic. This paper first identifies the potential applications for second use battery energy storage systems making use of decommissioned electric vehicle batteries and the resulting sustainability gains. Subsequently, it reviews ongoing research on second use battery energy storage systems within Europe and compares it to similar activities outside Europe. This review indicates that research in Europe focuses mostly on “behind-the-meter” applications such as minimising the export of self-generated electricity. Asian countries, especially China, use spent batteries for stationary as well as for mobile applications. In developing countries, off-grid applications dominate. Furthermore, the paper identifies economic, environmental, technological, and regulatory obstacles to the incorporation of repurposed batteries in second use battery energy storage systems and lists the developments needed to allow their future uptake. This review thus outlines the technological state-of-the-art and identifies areas of future research on second use battery energy storage systems.

A critical review of current technologies for the liberation of electrode materials from foils in the recycling process of spent lithium-ion batteries

Proper disposal of spent lithium-ion batteries is beneficial for the resource recycling and pollution elimination. Full liberation of electrode materials, including the liberation between electrode material and current collector (copper/aluminum foils) and the liberation among electrode material particles, is the pivotal precondition for improving the recovery efficiency of electrode materials. In this article, authors attempt to carry out a summary of current technologies used in the liberation of electrode materials derived from spent lithium-ion batteries. However, specialized studies about the liberation of electrode materials are insufficient at present. This research clearly shows that: (1) Organic binder must be removed so as to improve the liberation and metallurgy efficiency of electrode materials; (2) A collaboration of varied technologies is the necessary process to achieve high liberation efficiency between electrode materials and copper/aluminum foils; (3) Pyrolysis may be a recommended technology for removal of organic binder because part of pyrolysis products can be recovered. Finally, an alternative recycling flowchart of spent LIBs is proposed.

Homogeneous triple-phase interfaces enabling one-pot route to metal compound/carbon composites

Metal compounds (e.g., metal phosphides/sulfides/selenides) coupled with carbon materials have recently drawn great attraction for boosting the electrochemical performances because of their appealing synergistic effect and valuable structural stability. Despite many examples for their synthesis exist, there is still a need for a simplistic and comprehensive approach to such metal compound/carbon (MC/C) composites. Herein, an effective, facile, yet versatile strategy to produce various types of MC/C composites is presented. Key to this strategy is construction of a homogeneous triple-phase interface, which is realized by utilization of a hybrid assembly integrated with carbon, metal and sulfide (or selenide, phosphide) precursors through coupling metal cations with anion groups of a functional polymer. Such an intimately binding carbon-metal-sulfide (or selenide, phosphide) interface structure enables the successful in situ generation of MC nanoparticles uniformly encapsulated into the carbon matrix just after a one-step carbonization treatment. The present synthetic strategy provides remarkable adjustability, predictability and generality to facilely fabricate a series of MC/C composites, offering sufficient freedom to explore their unique energy storage/conversation properties. As a proof of concept, the as-prepared SnS/C composite exhibits superior lithium ion and potassium ion storage capabilities when used as anode materials for alkali-metal ion batteries. The present work provides impressive insights into the design principles for MC/C composites that are the potential materials in targeted application fields, and opens up an efficacious avenue for their facile synthesis as well.

End of Electric Vehicle Batteries: Reuse vs. Recycle

It is a fact that electric vehicles (EVs) are beneficial for climate protection. However, the current challenge is to decide on whether to reuse an EV battery or to recycle it after its first use. This paper theoretically investigates these areas i.e., recycle and reuse. It was found that there are several commercially used recycling processes and also some are under research to regain maximum possible materials and quantity. The concept of reusing (second life) of the battery is promising because, at the end of the first life, batteries from EVs can be used in several applications such as storing energy generated from renewable sources to support the government grid. However, the cost and life-cycle analysis (LCA) demonstrated that there are several aspects involved in battery reuse applications. Henceforth, one LCA generalised method cannot provide an optimal approach for all cases. It is important to have a detailed study on each of the battery reusing applications. Until then, it is safe to say that reusing the battery is a good option as it would give some time to recycling companies to develop cost and energy-efficient methods.

Potential impact of the end-of-life batteries recycling of electric vehicles on lithium demand in China: 2010-2050

China is expected to realise the complete electrification of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) by 2050. The rapid development of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to the continuous growth of traction lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand, leading to an increase in demand for specific lithium materials. Therefore, end-of-life (EoL) LIB recycling will largely determine the future lithium availability in China. However, the contribution of recovered lithium to lithium availability is unclear, as the possibility of recovering lithium for reuse in traction LIBs manufacturing is uncertain. To analyse the influence of recovered lithium quality on future lithium availability, we evaluated the potential impact of EoL LIB recycling on lithium demand in China. The results indicated that if new LIB manufacturing cannot use the recovered lithium; the secondary resources would soon exceed the needs of the basic demand (BD) field. In the optimistic scenario, when a LiS battery is used, the oversupply could reach 2.33 Mt by 2050 with a recovery rate of 80%, which is equivalent to 44.05% of China's current lithium reserves of 5.29 Mt. Additionally, when the NCM-G battery is used, the total lithium demand would reach approximately 5.67 Mt in 2031, exceeding China's current lithium reserves. In contrast, if the recovered lithium could be reused in new LIB manufacturing, regardless of the type of LIBs used, the recovered lithium would meet approximately 60% (pessimistic scenario), 53% (neutral scenario), and 49% (optimistic scenario) of the lithium demand for LIBs produced with a recovery rate of 80% by 2050. Consequently, the quality of recovered lithium is very important for its reuse, and it is necessary to develop closed-loop recycling with economic benefits vigorously by improving the quality of recovered lithium. Moreover, much work should be done in recycling infrastructure and industrial policies to promote EoL battery recycling.

Synthesis of graphene and recovery of lithium from lithiated graphite of spent Li-ion battery

Recycling of spent Li-ion batteries is crucial for achieving sustainable development of battery industry. Current recycling processes mainly focus on valuable metals but less attention has been paid to spent graphite, which generally ends up as secondary waste. In this study, a process for preparing graphene and recovering Li in anode as a by-product from spent graphite was developed. The key point was to re-charge the spent LIBs to generate lithium graphite intercalation compounds. The lithium graphite intercalation compounds were then subjected to a hydrolysis procedure and graphene could be produced through ultrasonic treatment via the expansion/micro-explosion mechanism. Experimental results demonstrated that 1-4 layered graphene could be efficiently produced when spent Li-ion batteries with beyond 50% capacity were re-charged. The prepared graphene showed high quantity containing few defects (I_D/I_G = 0.33, C/O = 13.2 by energy dispersive spectroscopy and C/O = 8.8 by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). In addition, Li was simultaneously recovered in the form of battery-grade lithium carbonate in the above process. Economic analysis indicated that the graphene production cost was extremely low ($540/ton) compared to that of commercial graphene.

Formation of Li2CO3 Nanostructures for Lithium-Ion Battery Anode Application by Nanotransfer Printing

Various high-performance anode and cathode materials, such as lithium carbonate, lithium titanate, cobalt oxides, silicon, graphite, germanium, and tin, have been widely investigated in an effort to enhance the energy density storage properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the structural manipulation of anode materials to improve the battery performance remains a challenging issue. In LIBs, optimization of the anode material is a key technology affecting not only the power density but also the lifetime of the device. Here, we introduce a novel method by which to obtain nanostructures for LIB anode application on various surfaces via nanotransfer printing (nTP) process. We used a spark plasma sintering (SPS) process to fabricate a sputter target made of Li2CO3, which is used as an anode material for LIBs. Using the nTP process, various Li2CO3 nanoscale patterns, such as line, wave, and dot patterns on a SiO2/Si substrate, were successfully obtained. Furthermore, we show highly ordered Li2CO3 nanostructures on a variety of substrates, such as Al, Al2O3, flexible PET, and 2-Hydroxylethyl Methacrylate (HEMA) contact lens substrates. It is expected that the approach demonstrated here can provide new pathway to generate many other designable structures of various LIB anode materials.

Vertically Integrated Supply Chain of Batteries, Electric Vehicles, and Charging Infrastructure: A Review of Three Milestone Projects from Theory of Constraints Perspective

This research utilizes case study methodology based on longitudinal interviews over a decade coupled with secondary data sources to juxtapose Tesla with two high-profile past mega-projects in the electric transportation industry, EV-1 and Better Place. The theory of constraints serves as a lens to identify production and market bottlenecks for the dissemination of electric vehicles. The valuable lessons learned from EV1 failure and Better Place bankruptcy paved the way for Tesla’s operations strategy to build gigafactories which bears a resemblance to Ford T mass production last century. Specifically, EV1 relied on external suppliers to develop batteries, while Better Place was dependent on a single manufacturer to build cars uniquely compatible with its charging infrastructure, whereas Tesla established a closed-loop, green, vertically integrated supply chain consisting of batteries, electric cars and charging infrastructure to meet its customers evolving needs. The analysis unveils several limitations of the Tesla business model which can impede its worldwide expansion, such as utility grid overload and a shortage of raw material, which Tesla strives to address by innovating advanced batteries and further extending its vertically integrated supply chain to the mining industry. The study concludes by sketching fruitful possible avenues for future research.

Recent advances in pretreating technology for recycling valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries

In recent years, the amount of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) increase sharply due to the promotion of new energy vehicles and the limited service life. Recycling of spent LIBs has attracted much attention because of the serious environmental pollution and high economic value. Although some established techniques have been presented in spent LIBs recycling process, but most of them focus on cathode material recycling due to its high economic value. Therefore, preparation of high purity cathode material by a proper pretreating technology is an important procedure. In this paper, the technologies used in the pretreating process of spent LIBs are summarized systematically from three main points of discharging procedure, liberation, and separation. The collaborative application of multi-technologies is the key to realize efficient pretreating process, which can lay the foundation for the subsequent metallurgical process. In addition, an alternative pretreating flowchart of spent LIBs is proposed based on the multi-process collaboration. Pretreating procedures in this process are mainly based on the physical property difference, and they include "Discharging-Shredding-Crushing-Sieving-Separation".

Sustainable recycling of LiCoO2 cathode scrap on the basis of successive peroxymonosulfate activation and recovery of valuable metals

Increasing demand and waste of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has adversely affected resources and the environment. Multistage utilization of spent LIBs is essential to their sustainable development. Here, we propose a simple recycling method of LiCoO₂ cathode scrap, based on the first use of the cathode scrap as a catalyst to degrade organic pollutants via peroxymonosulfate activation, and subsequent recovery of valuable metals from the used catalyst. Compared with pristine LiCoO₂, the LiCoO₂ cathode scrap exhibits excellent catalytic performance due to the active sites generated, such as the vacancy generation and electronic structure modulation by the degradation of LiCoO₂ during the continuous lithiation and delithiation processes. The removal efficiency of cathode scrap to the o-phenylphenol exceeds 98% within 60 min, and the degradation efficiency is still above 95% after the 10th use because its unique sandwich and porous structure ensure the stability and recyclability. After multiple catalytic reactions, due to the generation of crack, the separation of the sandwich structure, and further degradation of active materials, the leaching efficiency of transition metals from the cathode scrap in deep eutectic solvent is promoted. 86% of lithium and 95% of cobalt are leached from the used catalyst respectively. This study provides a promising strategy for the sustainable development of LIBs and promotes the utilization of spent LIBs in multiaspect.

A Biodegradable Secondary Battery and its Biodegradation Mechanism for Eco-Friendly Energy-Storage Systems

The production of rechargeable batteries is rapidly expanding, and there are going to be new challenges in the near future about how the potential environmental impact caused by the disposal of the large volume of the used batteries can be minimized. Herein, a novel strategy is proposed to address these concerns by applying biodegradable device technology. An eco-friendly and biodegradable sodium-ion secondary battery (SIB) is developed through extensive material screening followed by the synthesis of biodegradable electrodes and their seamless assembly with an unconventional biodegradable separator, electrolyte, and package. Each battery component decomposes in nature into non-toxic compounds or elements via hydrolysis and/or fungal degradation, with all of the biodegradation products naturally abundant and eco-friendly. Detailed biodegradation mechanisms and toxicity influence of each component on living organisms are determined. In addition, this new SIB delivers performance comparable to that of conventional non-degradable SIBs. The strategy and findings suggest a novel eco-friendly biodegradable paradigm for large-scale rechargeable battery systems.

Low-Concentrated Lithium Hexafluorophosphate Ternary-based Electrolyte for a Reliable and Safe NMC/Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery

Current commercial lithium-ion battery (LIB) electrolytes are heavily influenced by the cost, chemical instability, and thermal decomposition of the lithium hexafluorophosphate salt (LiPF₆). This work studies the use of an unprecedently low Li salt concentration in a novel electrolyte, which shows equivalent capabilities to their commercial counterparts. Herein, the use of 0.1 M LiPF₆ in a ternary solvent mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl ether (TFE) (3EC/7EMC/20TFE, by weight) is investigated for the first time in LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ (NMC111)/graphite pouch cells. In solution, the Li⁺ transport number and diffusion are governed by the Grotthuss mechanism, with transport properties being independent of salt concentration. The proposed electrolyte operates in a wide temperature window (0-40 °C), is nonflammable (self-extinguishing under 2 s), and shows adequately fast wetting (4 s). When incorporated into the NMC/graphite pouch cell, it initially forms a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) with minimal gas formation followed by a comparable battery performance to standard LiPF₆ electrolytes, validated by a high specific capacity of 165 mAh g^-1, Coulombic efficiencies of 99.3%, and capacity retention of 85% over 700 cycles.

Low-Resistance Mechanism of Nanoflake Crystalline Aromatic Dicarboxylates with Selective Defects for Safe and Fast Charging Negative Electrodes

Low resistance of Li-intercalated negative electrodes is important for the safe and fast charging required for large-scale batteries. Here, we demonstrated that nanosized two-dimensional crystalline aromatic dicarboxylate negative electrode materials synthesized via spray drying exhibit low internal resistances at approximately 0.7 V vs Li/Li⁺, while retaining flat potential profiles. The spray-dried sample with a hollow structure is crushed into nanoflakes during ink preparation for electrode coating and forms a uniform and highly dispersed electrode structure. The charge-discharge evaluation indicates that the nanoflake sample showed smaller charge-discharge polarization than the bulk sample with stable cycling characteristics, resulting in significant high-rate property enhancement. Charge-transfer resistance of the nanoflake sample exhibits the lowest value (ca. 2.2 Ω cm²) among those reported for existing intercalation electrodes (5.2 to 235 Ω cm²). In comparison of the negative electrodes, the estimated maximum current density without Li deposition (ca. 316 mA cm^-2) is more than 1 order of magnitude higher than that for currently used graphite (ca. 11 mA cm^-2) and is also higher than those for high-rate oxides (137-298 mA cm^-2). The resistance-crystal correlation using multiple regression analysis predictions and its verification reveal that this low resistance is owing to an improved Li acceptability associated with selective structural defects induced by the loss of incorporated crystallized water during drying. The crystal plane exposed by the selective structural defects is perpendicular to electronic and ionic conduction directions inside the solid, resulting in improved kinetics. Therefore, the proposed negative electrode allows safe and fast charging, with easy scale-up and sustainable resources.

Crashed Electric Vehicle Handling and Recommendations—State of the Art in Germany

In the near future, electric powered vehicles will represent a major part of the road traffic. Accordingly, there will be a natural increase of accidents involving electric vehicles. There are not many cases of such accidents yet and therefore the experience and correct handling are still partially open points for the involved parties, such as the rescue services for example. The aim of this work is to provide a complete overview of the accident handling sequence in Germany, starting with the damaged vehicle on site and moving on to the risks and challenges for the stakeholders, such as transport and recycling companies. Arising from the developed overview, a handling recommendation for yet undiscussed points is given. Especially, different extinguishing and deactivation methods are compared and discussed. Due to a lack of a common live-feed from battery data on site, other criteria have to be taken into account to assess the state of the battery. The wrecked vehicle—including the high voltage system—needs to be in a definite safe state at the handover to a towing service. Depending on the case, different options for securing the vehicle will be considered in this work.

Functional Kevlar-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerator with Impact Energy-Harvesting Property for Power Source and Personal Safeguard

A novel shock-resistant, self-generating triboelectric nanogenerator (SS-TENG) with high-speed impact energy-harvesting and safeguarding properties was developed by assembling Kevlar fiber and conductive shear-stiffening gel. The SS-TENG with energy-harvesting property generated a maximum power density of 5.3 mW/m² with a voltage of 13.1 V under oscillator compression and could light up light-emitting diode arrays. Owing to the energy absorption effect, the as-designed SS-TENG could dissipate impact forces from 2880 to 1460 N, showing anti-impact performance under the drop hammer impact. It also sensed the loading forces by outputting 36.4 V. Functionalized as a self-powered sensor, SS-TENG monitored various human movements and provided protection from hammer impact. Interestingly, a wearable sole array with high sensitivity and a fast response could distinguish toe in/out motions. More importantly, this functional SS-TENG presented excellent anti-impact behavior, which dissipated 94% of kinetic energy under bullet-shooting excitation. It also gathered high speed ballistic energy, which outputted a maximum power density of 3 mW/m². To this end, this SS-TENG with a protection effect and the ability to harvest various impact energy showed promising applications in new power sources, intelligent wearable systems, and safeguard areas.

The COOL-Process—A Selective Approach for Recycling Lithium Batteries

The global market of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) has been growing in recent years, mainly owed to electromobility. The global LIB market is forecasted to amount to $129.3 billion in 2027. Considering the global reserves needed to produce these batteries and their limited lifetime, efficient recycling processes for secondary sources are mandatory. A selective process for Li recycling from LIB black mass is described. Depending on the process parameters Li was recovered almost quantitatively by the COOL-Process making use of the selective leaching properties of supercritical CO2/water. Optimization of this direct carbonization process was carried out by a design of experiments (DOE) using a 33 Box-Behnken design. Optimal reaction conditions were 230 °C, 4 h, and a water:black mass ratio of 90 mL/g, yielding 98.6 ± 0.19 wt.% Li. Almost quantitative yield (99.05 ± 0.64 wt.%), yet at the expense of higher energy consumption, was obtained with 230 °C, 4 h, and a water:black mass ratio of 120 mL/g. Mainly Li and Al were mobilized, which allows for selectively precipitating Li2CO3 in battery grade-quality (>99.8 wt.%) without the need for further refining. Valuable metals, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Ni, and Mn, remained in the solid residue (97.7 wt.%), from where they are recovered by established processes. Housing materials were separated mechanically, thus recycling LIB without residues. This holistic zero waste-approach allows for recovering the critical raw material Li from both primary and secondary sources.

Comparison of Hydrogen Powertrains with the Battery Powered Electric Vehicle and Investigation of Small-Scale Local Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Energy

Climate change is one of the major problems that people face in this century, with fossil fuel combustion engines being huge contributors. Currently, the battery powered electric vehicle is considered the predecessor, while hydrogen vehicles only have an insignificant market share. To evaluate if this is justified, different hydrogen power train technologies are analyzed and compared to the battery powered electric vehicle. Even though most research focuses on the hydrogen fuel cells, it is shown that, despite the lower efficiency, the often-neglected hydrogen combustion engine could be the right solution for transitioning away from fossil fuels. This is mainly due to the lower costs and possibility of the use of existing manufacturing infrastructure. To achieve a similar level of refueling comfort as with the battery powered electric vehicle, the economic and technological aspects of the local small-scale hydrogen production are being investigated. Due to the low efficiency and high prices for the required components, this domestically produced hydrogen cannot compete with hydrogen produced from fossil fuels on a larger scale.

Pseudocapacitance multiporous vanadyl phosphate/graphene thin film electrode for high performance electrochemical capacitors

Supercapacitors are being considered as promising electricity storage devices with green sustainable energy conversion. To efficiently develop and optimize pseudocapacitive material of vanadyl phosphate, herein, multiporous vanadyl phosphate/graphene (denoted as MP-VOPO₄@rGO) is fabricated for the first time with phytic acid as a phosphorus source by extremely simple sol-gel and drop coating methods, and used as the free binder thin film electrode of supercapacitors. The smart combination of honeycomb-like architecture and graphene incorporation results in more active sites and low internal resistance, significantly improving energy storage performance. The effect of introducting polystyrene (denoted as PS) template and rGO on the performance of the nanocomposite is systematically analyzed by comparing the performance of the corresponding thin film electrodes. The MP-VOPO₄@rGO thin film electrode delivers superior pseudocapacitive performance of 672 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 as well as a remarkable rate capability of 552 F g^-1 at 5 A g^-1, and it presents a remarkable longterm cycling stability, with a capacitance retention of 83.5% after 5000 cycles. Very interestingly, the results of surface capacitance contribution dominance clearly demonstrates its rapid capacitive response. In addition, based on MP-VOPO₄@rGO thin film as positive and negative electrodes, the corresponding assembled symmetric supercapacitors exihibits outstanding energy density of 26.3 Wh kg^-1 at power density of 249.9 W kg^-1. This investigation can not only provide a versatile strategy to design other thin film electrode materials but also open up a new insight into the development of polyanion phosphate composites for next-generation high performance energy storage systems.

Early-Stage Recovery of Lithium from Tailored Thermal Conditioned Black Mass Part I: Mobilizing Lithium via Supercritical CO2-Carbonation

In the frame of global demand for electrical storage based on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), their recycling with a focus on the circular economy is a critical topic. In terms of political incentives, the European legislative is currently under revision. Most industrial recycling processes target valuable battery components, such as nickel and cobalt, but do not focus on lithium recovery. Especially in the context of reduced cobalt shares in the battery cathodes, it is important to investigate environmentally friendly and economic and robust recycling processes to ensure lithium mobilization. In this study, the method early-stage lithium recovery (“ESLR”) is studied in detail. Its concept comprises the shifting of lithium recovery to the beginning of the chemo-metallurgical part of the recycling process chain in comparison to the state-of-the-art. In detail, full NCM (Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide)-based electric vehicle cells are thermally treated to recover heat-treated black mass. Then, the heat-treated black mass is subjected to an H2O-leaching step to examine the share of water-soluble lithium phases. This is compared to a carbonation treatment with supercritical CO2, where a higher extent of lithium from the heat-treated black mass can be transferred to an aqueous solution than just by H2O-leaching. Key influencing factors on the lithium yield are the filter cake purification, the lithium separation method, the solid/liquid ratio, the pyrolysis temperature and atmosphere, and the setup of autoclave carbonation, which can be performed in an H2O-environment or in a dry autoclave environment. The carbonation treatments in this study are reached by an autoclave reactor working with CO2 in a supercritical state. This enables selective leaching of lithium in H2O followed by a subsequent thermally induced precipitation as lithium carbonate. In this approach, treatment with supercritical CO2 in an autoclave reactor leads to lithium yields of up to 79%.

Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects

The anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO2), has resulted in a notable climate change and an increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century [...]

Large-scale survey of lithium concentrations in marine organisms

Trace metals such as Cu, Hg, and Zn have been widely investigated in marine ecotoxicological studies considering their bioaccumulation, transfer along trophic webs, and the risks they pose to ecosystems and human health. Comparatively, Li has received little attention, although this element is increasingly used in the high-tech, ceramics/glass, and medication industries. Here, we report Li concentrations in more than 400 samples, including whole organisms and different organs of bivalves, cephalopods, crustaceans, and fish. We investigated species from three contrasting biogeographic areas, i.e. temperate (Bay of Biscay, northeast Atlantic Ocean), tropical (New Caledonia, Pacific Ocean), and subpolar climates (Kerguelen Islands, southern Indian Ocean), among diverse trophic groups (filter-feeders to meso-predators) and habitats (benthic, demersal, and pelagic). Although Li is homogeneously distributed in the ocean (at 0.18 μg/mL), Li concentrations in soft tissues vary greatly, from 0.01 to 1.20 μg/g dry weight. Multiple correspondence analyses reveal two clusters of high and low Li concentrations. Li distributions in marine organisms appear to be mostly geographically independent, though our results highlight a temperature dependency in fish muscles. Li is consistently bio-reduced through the trophic webs, with filter-feeders showing the highest concentrations and predatory fish the lowest. Strong variations are observed among organs, consistent with the biochemical similarity between Na and Li during transport in the brain and in osmoregulatory organs. Fish gills and kidneys show relatively high Li concentrations (0.26 and 0.15 μg/g, respectively) and fish brains show a large range of Li contents (up to 0.34 μg/g), whereas fish liver and muscles are Li depleted (0.07 ± 0.03 and 0.06 ± 0.08 μg/g, respectively). Altogether, these results provide the first exhaustive baseline for future Li ecotoxicology studies in marine coastal environments.

High-value utilization of graphite electrodes in spent lithium-ion batteries: From 3D waste graphite to 2D graphene oxide

The graphite electrodes of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have a good crystalline composition and layered structure, and the recovery potential is promising. However, the internal and external surfaces of the waste graphite are often polluted with various organic and inorganic impurities, which seriously restrict its high-value utilization. Herein, the microstructure and surface analysis of waste graphite at variable scales were carried out systematically to reveal the types and occurrence status of impurities and their influence on the preparation of graphene oxide (GO) using a modified Hummers method. The results show that the graphite surface contaminants are polyvinylidene fluoride binder, LiPF₆ electrolyte and LiF residue from the solid electrolyte interface, while residual lithium (Li₂CO₃) and CuO were found to have invaded the crystal structure of graphite. Fortunately, the modified Hummers method can effectively remove these complicated associated impurities and prevent their re-contamination on the GO surface. More importantly, the modified Hummers method can not only destroy the longitudinal molecular bonds between graphite layers, but also splice them horizontally to form 2D GO, which is verified by high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) images. This paper provides theoretical support and practical guidance for the high-value utilization of waste graphite in spent LIBs.

Two-Dimensional Silicon/Carbon from Commercial Alloy and CO2 for Lithium Storage and Flexible Ti3C2Tx MXene-Based Lithium-Metal Batteries

Silicon has been considered as the most promising anode candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries. However, the fast capacity decay caused by huge volume expansion and low electronic conductivity limit the electrochemical performance. Herein, atomic distributed, air-stable, layer-by-layer-assembled Si/C (L-Si/C) is designed and in situ constructed from commercial micron-sized layered CaSi₂ alloy with the greenhouse gas CO₂. The inner structure of Si as well as the content and graphitization of C can be regulated by simply adjusting the reaction conditions. The rationally designed layered structure can enhance electronic conductivity and mitigate volume change without disrupting the carbon layer or destroying the solid electrolyte interface. Moreover, the single-layer Si and C can enhance lithium-ion transport in active materials. With these advantages, L-Si/C anode delivers an 82.85% capacity retention even after 3200 cycles and superior rate performance. The battery-capacitance dual-model mechanism is certified via quantitative kinetics measurement. Besides, the self-standing architecture is designed via assembling L-Si/C and MXene. Lithiophilic L-Si/C can guide homogeneous Li deposition with alleviated volume change. With the MXene/L-Si/C host for lithium-metal batteries, an ultralong life span up to 500 h in a carbonate-based electrolyte is achieved. A full cell with a high-energy 5 V LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ cathode is constructed to verify the practicality of L-Si/C and MXene/L-Si/C. The rational design of a special layer structure may propose a strategy for other materials and energy storage systems.

Recovery of valuable metals from mixed spent lithium-ion batteries by multi-step directional precipitation

The novel strategy of multi-step directional precipitation is proposed for recovering valuable metals from the leachate of cathode material obtained by mechanical disassembly from mixed spent lithium-ion batteries. Based on thermodynamics and directional precipitation, Mn²⁺ is selectively precipitated under conditions of MRNM (molar ratio of (NH₄)₂S₂O₈ to Mn²⁺) = 3, pH = 5.5 and 80 °C for 90 min. Ni²⁺ was then selectively precipitated using C₄H₈N₂O₂ under conditions of pH = 6, MRCN (molar ratio of C₄H₈N₂O₂ to Ni²⁺) = 2, 30 °C and 20 min. Then, the pH was adjusted to 10 to precipitate Co²⁺ as Co(OH)₂. Finally, Li⁺ was recovered by Na₂CO₃ at 90 °C. The precipitation rates of Mn, Ni, Co, and Li reached 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.2% and 90%, respectively. The precipitation products with high purity can be used as raw materials for industrial production based on characterization. The economical and efficient recovery process can be applied in industrialized large-scale recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries.

The Current Process for the Recycling of Spent Lithium Ion Batteries

With the development of electric vehicles involving lithium ion batteries as energy storage devices, the demand for lithium ion batteries in the whole industry is increasing, which is bound to lead to a large number of lithium ion batteries in the problem of waste, recycling and reuse. If not handled properly, it will certainly have a negative impact on the environment and resources. Current commercial lithium ion batteries mainly contain transition metal oxides or phosphates, aluminum, copper, graphite, organic electrolytes containing harmful lithium salts, and other chemicals. Therefore, the recycling and reuse of spent lithium ion batteries has been paid more and more attention by many researchers. However, due to the high energy density, high safety and low price of lithium ion batteries have great differences and diversity, the recycling of waste lithium ion batteries has great difficulties. This paper reviews the latest development of the recovery technology of waste lithium ion batteries, including the development of recovery process and products. In addition, the challenges and future economic and application prospects are described.

Investigation of Centrifugal Fractionation with Time-Dependent Process Parameters as a New Approach Contributing to the Direct Recycling of Lithium-Ion Battery Components

Recycling of lithium-ion batteries will become imperative in the future, but comprehensive and sustainable processes for this are still rather lacking. Direct recycling comprising separation of the black mass components as a key step is regarded as the most seminal approach. This paper contributes a novel approach for such separation, that is fractionation in a tubular centrifuge. An aqueous dispersion of cathode materials (lithium iron phosphate, also referred to as LFP, and carbon black) serves as exemplary feed to be fractionated, desirably resulting in a sediment of pure LFP. This paper provides a detailed study of the commonly time-dependent output of the tubular centrifuge and introduces an approach aiming to achieve constant output. Therefore, three different settings are assessed, constantly low, constantly high and an increase in rotational speed over time. Constant settings result in the predictable unsatisfactory time-variant output, whereas rotational speed increase proves to be able to maintain constant centrate properties. With further process development, the concept of fractionation in tubular centrifuges may mature into a promising separation technique for black mass in a direct recycling process chain.