Livedoid vasculitis with ulcerations: the role of antithrombin III deficiency and its therapeutic consequences

Occlusive cutaneous vasculopathies as cause of chronic ulcers

The term occluding vasculopathies covers a large number of different conditions. These often manifest as skin ulcers. Occluding vasculopathies should be considered in the differential diagnosis of leg ulcers. The term "occlusive vasculopathies" encompasses pathophysiologically related entities that share structural or thrombotic obliteration of small cutaneous vessels. In this article, we will focus on livedoid vasculopathy with and without antiphospholipid syndrome and calciphylaxis with differentiation from hypertonic leg ulcer as the most relevant differential diagnoses of leg ulcer. The term also includes vascular occlusion, for example due to oxalate or cholesterol embolism, and septic vasculopathy. This often leads to acral ulceration and is therefore not a differential diagnosis with classic leg ulcers. It will not be discussed in this article. Occlusive vasculopathy may be suspected in the presence of the typical livedo racemosa or (non-inflammatory) retiform purpura as a sign of reduced cutaneous perfusion in the wound area. Inflammatory dermatoses, especially vasculitides, must be differentiated. This is achieved by histopathological evaluation of a tissue sample of sufficient size and depth taken at the appropriate time. In addition, specific laboratory parameters, particularly coagulation parameters, can support the diagnosis.

Okkludierende kutane Vaskulopathien als Ursachen chronischer Unterschenkelulzerationen

Unter den Begriff der okkludierenden Vaskulopathien fällt eine Reihe unterschiedlicher Krankheitsbilder. Diese manifestieren sich an der Haut häufig mit Ulzerationen. Gerade bei Ulzerationen der Unterschenkel sollten okkludierende Vaskulopathien in die differenzialdiagnostischen Überlegungen einbezogen werden. Der Begriff „okkludierende Vaskulopathien“ umfasst pathophysiologisch verwandte Entitäten, die eine strukturelle oder thrombotische Obliteration von kleinsten Hautgefäßen gemein haben. In diesem Artikel wird vor allem auf die Livedovaskulopathie mit und ohne Antiphospholipidsyndrom sowie die Calciphylaxie mit Abgrenzung zum Ulcus cruris hypertonicum als die relevantesten Differenzialdiagnosen von Unterschenkelulzerationen eingegangen. Der Begriff umfasst auch Gefäßverschlüsse, beispielsweise durch Oxalat oder Cholesterinembolie, sowie die septische Vaskulopathie. Diese führt häufig zu akralen Ulzerationen und stellt somit keine Differenzialdiagnose zum klassischen Ulcus cruris dar. Sie wird daher in diesem Artikel nicht behandelt.

Der Verdacht einer okkludierenden Vaskulopathie kann über die typische Livedo racemosa beziehungsweise die (nichtinflammatorische) retiforme Purpura als Zeichen der kutanen Minderdurchblutung in der Wundumgebung gestellt werden. Entzündliche Dermatosen, insbesondere Vaskulitiden, müssen differenzialdiagnostisch abgegrenzt werden. Dies geschieht zum Teil klinisch und durch die histopathologische Beurteilung einer Gewebeprobe, die in ausreichender Größe und Tiefe sowie zum richtigen Zeitpunkt entnommen werden muss. Ergänzend können spezifische Laborparameter, insbesondere die Gerinnungsdiagnostik, die Diagnosestellung unterstützen.

Livedoid vasculopathy: A multidisciplinary clinical approach to diagnosis and management

Livedoid vasculopathy (LV) is a rare, chronic, and occlusive disease of the veins supplying the upper parts of the skin. The pathogenesis of the disease is not precisely understood, and its attacks are often unpredictable but tend to worsen during the summer. LV affects women more often. This increased risk for LV in women might be related to sex-specific physiological conditions, such as pregnancy, or a higher incidence of LV-associated conditions, such as connective tissue diseases, hypercoagulable states, and venous stasis in women. The typical clinical appearance of LV consists of three main findings: livedo racemose, atrophie blanche, and skin ulcers. The purpose of this comprehensive review was to analyze LV in all aspects and mainly focus on early diagnosis for successful clinical management with a holistic and multidisciplinary approach. A detailed history, dermatological examination, and laboratory testing are essential for a diagnosis of LV. When LV is clinically suspected, a skin biopsy should be taken to confirm the diagnosis. Another critical step is to investigate the underlying associated conditions, such as connective tissue diseases, hypercoagulable states, thrombophilia, and malignancy. Unfortunately, no associated conditions can be detected in approximately 20% of all cases (idiopathic LV) despite all efforts. The diagnosis of the disease is delayed in most patients. Thus, irreversible, permanent scars appear. Early and appropriate treatment reduces pain and prevents the development of scars and other complications. Antiplatelet drugs and anticoagulants can be preferred as the first-line treatments along with general supportive measures. Other therapeutic options might be considered in unresponsive cases. Preference for refractory cases is based on availability, clinical experience, and patient-related factors (comorbidities, age, sex, and compliance). These include anabolic steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, psoralen-ultraviolet A, vasodilators, fibrinolytics, immunomodulators, and immunosuppressives.

A Phase II Multicenter Trial With Rivaroxaban in the Treatment of Livedoid Vasculopathy Assessing Pain on a Visual Analog Scale

BACKGROUND

Livedoid vasculopathy is an orphan skin disease characterized by recurrent thrombosis of the cutaneous microcirculation. It manifests itself almost exclusively in the ankles, the back of the feet, and the distal part of the lower legs. Because of the vascular occlusion, patients suffer from intense local ischemic pain. Incidence of livedoid vasculopathy is estimated to be around 1:100,000. There are currently no approved treatments for livedoid vasculopathy, making off-label therapy the only option. In Europe, thromboprophylactic treatment with low-molecular-weight heparins has become widely accepted.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this trial is the statistical verification of the therapeutic effects of the anticoagulant rivaroxaban in patients suffering from livedoid vasculopathy.

METHODS

We performed a therapeutic phase IIa trial designed as a prospective, one-armed, multicenter, interventional series of cases with a calculated sample size of 20 patients. The primary outcome is the assessment of local pain on the visual analog scale (VAS) as an intraindividual difference of 2 values between baseline and 12 weeks.

RESULTS

Enrollment started in December 2012 and was still open at the date of submission. The study is expected to finish in November 2014.

CONCLUSIONS

Livedoid vasculopathy is associated with increased thrombophilia in the cutaneous microcirculation and the continuous use of anticoagulants helps improve the symptoms. The causes of cutaneous infarctions are heterogenous, but ultimately follow the known mechanisms of the coagulation cascade. Rivaroxaban affects the coagulation cascade and inhibits the factor Xa-dependent conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, thereby considerably reducing the risk of thrombosis.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial Registration EudraCT Number: 2012-000108-13-DE; https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=eudract_number:2012-000108-13 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6UCktWVCA); German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS): DRKS00004652; https://drks-neu.uniklinik-freiburg.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00004652 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6UCIAKyCS).

The skin and hypercoagulable states

Hypercoagulable states (HS) are inherited or acquired conditions that predispose an individual to venous and/or arterial thrombosis. The dermatologist can play a vital role in diagnosing a patient's HS by recognizing the associated cutaneous manifestations, such as purpura, purpura fulminans, livedo reticularis, livedo vasculopathy (atrophie blanche), anetoderma, chronic venous ulcers, and superficial venous thrombosis. The cutaneous manifestations of HS are generally nonspecific, but identification of an abnormal finding can warrant a further workup for an underlying thrombophilic disorder. This review will focus on the basic science of hemostasis, the evaluation of HS, the skin manifestations associated with hypercoagulability, and the use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy in dermatology.

Livedoid vasculopathy: an intringuing cutaneous disease

Livedoid vasculopathy is a skin disease that occludes the blood vessels of the dermis. It has a pauciinflammatory or non-inflammatory nature. It is characterized by the presence of macular or papular, erythematous-purpuric lesions affecting the legs, especially the ankles and feet, and producing intensely painful ulcerations, which cause white atrophic scars called "atrophie blanche". This review includes studies and case reports found in the medical literature regarding the etiopathogenic associations of the disease, particularly those related to thrombophilia, their histopathological findings and the therapeutic approaches used in the difficult clinical management of these cases.

Case of livedoid vasculopathy with extensive dermal capillary thrombi

Livedoid vasculopathy (LV) is thought to be a thrombogenic disorder. Here, we report a case of LV presenting livedo reticularis with leg ulcers clinically and many thrombogenic cutaneous vessels histologically. These features strongly suggested the presence of thrombogenic factors involved with the development of the lesions. After examination of various possible thrombogenic factors including phosphatidylserine-dependent anti-prothrombin antibody, we failed to detect any responsible thrombogenic factors for this case of LV. Recently, diverse thrombogenic factors have been reported to be involved in LV. This case may suggest that unknown thrombogenic factors are additionally related to LV pathogenesis.

Heterozygous prothrombin gene mutation associated with livedoid vasculopathy

A 53-year-old woman presented with a chronic history of recurrent, painful ulcers, predominantly involving her lower legs. Both her clinical picture and histopathological findings were consistent with a diagnosis of livedoid vasculopathy, although she did have unusual findings of deep tender nodules and the presence of lesions over her elbows. Multiple investigations were undertaken, the only abnormality being a heterozygous mutation of the prothrombin G2021A gene. Although various coagulopathic states have been associated with livedoid vasculopathy, the finding of an associated prothrombin gene mutation is quite rare. Warfarin has ameliorated the clinical course when anti-inflammatory drugs and other anticoagulants were unhelpful.

Livedoid vasculopathy and hypercoagulability in a patient with primary Sjögren's syndrome

BACKGROUND

A 31-year-old woman presented with a 5-year history of painful ulcerations, palpable purpura, porcelain-white atrophic scars of the malleolar region and dorsal aspect of the feet, livedo reticularis on the limbs, arthralgia, xerophthalmia, and xerostomia.

METHODS

Skin biopsy revealed vessel wall hyalinization and thrombosis of the microvasculature with a very scarce dermal inflammatory infiltrate. Biopsy of the oral mucosa showed mononuclear infiltration of an intralobular duct of a salivary gland.

RESULTS

Laboratory studies, including autoantibodies and inflammation markers, were normal, except for a positive rheumatoid factor. Coagulation screening revealed C677T methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) mutation, with a normal serum homocysteine. The patient was treated with oral methylprednisolone (32 mg/day with progressive reduction) and enoxaparin (20 mg/day subcutaneously), with complete ulcer healing within 4 months.

CONCLUSION

Livedoid vasculitis or vasculopathy has not been referred to previously in association with Sjögren's syndrome, but may be associated with other autoimmune disorders and anomalies of coagulation, namely factor V Leiden mutation, protein C deficiency, and MTHFR mutation, associated or not with hyperhomocysteinemia, a condition that seems to confer an increased risk of recurrent arterial and venous thrombosis. We stress the importance of anticoagulant therapy for ulcer healing and for the prevention of other thrombotic events.

Análise da freqüência de trombofilia em pacientes com atrofia branca de Milian

FUNDAMENTOS - Atrofia branca de Milian ou vasculopatia livedóide é entidade clinicopatológica rara, cuja patogênese não é completamente compreendida. OBJETIVOS - Avaliar casos de atrofia branca de Milian para verificar a prevalência de diversas trombofilias. MATERIAL E MÉTODOS - Quatorze pacientes foram submetidos a exames laboratoriais incluindo pesquisa de fator V (Leiden), protrombina mutante, dosagem de antitrombina, proteína S e C, pesquisa de anticorpos anticardiolipina e anticoagulante lúpico, dosagem de homocisteína e pesquisa da mutação da metilenotetraidrofolatoredutase. RESULTADOS - Dos nove doentes cujos critérios de inclusão foram preenchidos para análise da freqüência de trombofilia, foram encontrados quatro com fatores relacionados à trombofilia: deficiência da antitrombina (um caso), deficiência da proteína S (um caso), mutação da metilenotetraidrofolatoredutase com hiperhomocisteinemia (um caso) e presença de anticorpo anticardiolipina (um caso). CONCLUSÃO - Apesar de este estudo não apresentar casuística que possibilite a comparação com a população geral, os dados sugerem a presença de eventos geradores de trombofilia nesses doentes, contribuindo para adoção sistemática de um protocolo de investigação de trombofilia nos doentes portadores de vasculopatia livedóide no Brasil.

Refractory livedoid vasculitis responding to PUVA: a report of four cases

Livedoid vasculitis is a chronic disease characterized by recurrent painful irregularly shaped ulcers, which heal with scars, most commonly located on feet or lower extremities. This condition is often resistant to the therapy. We report four cases with refractory livedoid vasculitis that responded to systemic psoralens and ultraviolet A radiation therapy.

Mononeuropathy multiplex in association with livedoid vasculitis

Livedoid vasculitis is a chronic dermatological disorder associated with petechiae and recurrent, unusually shaped ulcers that heal to form hyperpigmentated areas and atrophie blanche. This condition is more correctly termed a vasculopathy, rather than a vascultis, and is often associated with an underlying hypercoagulable disorder. We report a patient with livedoid vasculitis and mononeuropathy multiplex. We propose that peripheral nervous system involvement arises from multifocal areas of ischemia due to fibrin and thrombin deposition within both the wall and lumen of vasa nervorum.