[Systemic treatments of inflammatory breast cancer: an overview]

The poor prognosis of inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is due to its strong metastatic potential. During the last three decades, the introduction of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (CT), and its improvement with successive additions of anthracyclines and then taxanes, allowed to double the survival. However, the 5-year survival still remains lower than 50%, with the pathological complete response (pCR) to neoadjuvant CT being a major prognostic factor. Since 1995, several innovative approaches have been evaluated. Initially, the trials of high-dose CT with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation have generated promising results, but ultimately failed to change standards of treatment, in particular because of its toxicity. More recently, a few targeted therapies, combined to conventional CT, have been assessed, due to the frequent overexpression of HER2 and EGFR and the important vascularization of IBC. Trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody targeting HER2, has shown a clear advantage in terms of pCR and survival in studies dedicated to, HER2-positive locally advanced breast cancers, including IBC. Lapatinib, a dual tyrosine kinase inhibitor anti-HER2 and EGFR, has shown significant activity in two phase II studies dedicated to HER2-positive IBC. The interest of HER2-double blockade by the combination of trastuzumab-pertuzumab combined to docetaxel has been demonstrated in term of pCR in the NEOSPHERE study which also included HER2-positive IBC. Among the anti-angiogenic drugs tested in studies dedicated to IBC, bevacizumab has given the most interesting results in term of efficacy/toxicity ratio. In the Beverly 2 study HER2-positive IBC patients were treated by the combination chemotherapy, trastuzumab and bevacizumab: the rate of pCR was 64%, and the 3-year disease-free and overall survivals were 68% and 90%, respectively; the increase of endothelial cells circulating was inversely correlated to the probability of pCR. All those treatments have been extrapolated from standard breast cancers. Thus, a deep molecular knowledge of IBC appears to be critical in order to develop specific treatments effectively targeting its particular aggressiveness.

High Dose Chemotherapy and Hematopoietic Progenitor Cell Transplantation for Breast Cancer

Nowhere has there been more controversy in recent years than in the use of high dose chemotherapy (HDC) with autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for breast cancer, both in the adjuvant setting and for advanced disease. Authors review and comment on the data from the studies so far reported and try to indicate what will be next in this field. They also discuss what may be the attitude to take in our everyday clinical practice, taking into account the availability of new chemotherapeutic agents and targeted therapies.

Systemic therapy of inflammatory breast cancer from high-dose chemotherapy to targeted therapies: the French experience

BACKGROUND

Aggressiveness of inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is related to its metastatic potential. The introduction of primary chemotherapy in the multimodality treatment has dramatically changed the prognosis. However, survival remains poor. Since 1995, innovative systemic therapies have been assessed in France in multicentric clinical trials, initially centered on high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and, more recently, on targeted therapies.

METHODS

The authors present the rationale and first results of these French studies specifically dedicated to nonmetastastic IBC.

RESULTS

More than 380 patients have been included in 5 trials. The first 3 trials enrolled 329 women and concerned HDC (PEGASE 02, 05, 07). PEGASE 02 and PEGASE 05 showed a high pathological complete response rate (30%) after primary sequential HDC, and suggested that more than 4 cycles does not seem to provide any benefit. PEGASE 07 tested adjuvant maintenance chemotherapy after neoadjuvant HDC. Analysis is ongoing. The 2 other trials currently underway combine targeted therapies with conventional-dose chemotherapy in ERBB2-negative (Beverly 1 trial; bevacizumab) and ERBB2-positive (Beverly 2; bevacizumab and trastuzumab) IBC.

CONCLUSIONS

HDC with HSCT remains experimental with high pCR rates and which likely benefits to subgroups of patients that remain to be identified. Targeted therapies, such as anti-ERBB2 and antiangiogenic drugs, are being tested, and should improve survival as demonstrated in non-IBC. With emerging targeted drugs, there is hope that a cure becomes an achievable goal for more patients. Because of the rarity and the heterogeneity of disease, well-designed large-scale collaborative studies are mandatory.

Strategies to improve long-term outcome in stage IIIB inflammatory breast cancer: multimodality treatment including dose-intensive induction and high-dose chemotherapy

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare clinicopathologic entity with a poor prognosis, lagging far behind any other form of nonmetastatic breast cancer. Since the advent of systemic chemotherapy over 35 years ago, only minimal progress has been made in long-term outcome. Although multiple randomized trials of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous progenitor cell transplantation (ASCT) for the treatment of breast cancer have yielded disappointing results, these data are not necessarily relevant to IBC, a distinct clinical and pathologic entity. Therefore, the optimal multimodality therapy for IBC is not well established, and remains unsatisfactory. We treated 21 women with nonmetastatic IBC with a multimodality strategy including high-dose melphalan (Mel)/etoposide and ASCT. The treatment was overall tolerated with acceptable morbidity, and no post-ASCT 100-day mortality. With a median potential follow-up of approximately 8 years, the estimated progression-free survival (PFS), event-free survival (EFS), and overall survival (OS) at 6 years from on-study date are: 67%, 55%, and 69%, respectively. These results from a small phase II study are among the most promising of mature outcome data for IBC. They strongly suggest, along with results of several already published phase II trials, that ASCT could play a significant role in the first line treatment of IBC.

Lack of uniform diagnostic criteria for inflammatory breast cancer limits interpretation of treatment outcomes: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is the most aggressive type of breast cancer. No randomized controlled trial or systematic review with an IBC-only cohort that evaluates interventions has been published. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to characterize the reporting of clinical criteria and response to neoadjuvant therapy for IBC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We searched MEDLINE and other sources for the following: previously untreated patients with IBC without metastasis in cohort studies; utilized chemotherapy; and reported clinical outcomes. The following 4 groups were analyzed: no anthracycline induction, low-dose anthracycline induction, moderate-dose anthracycline induction, and high-dose chemotherapy requiring stem cell support. Weighted averages for the overall response rates were calculated using a random effects model.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven studies met all criteria, totaling 1232 patients. Clinical description of IBC eligibility criteria and reported response assessments varied significantly among studies. The response rates and 3- and 5-year overall survival for all 27 studies ranged from 14% to 100%, 22% to 84%, and 32% to 75%, respectively. Pathologic complete response rates after no anthracycline induction, low-dose anthracycline induction, moderate-dose anthracycline induction, and neoadjuvant high-dose chemotherapy subgroups were 4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 1%-18%), 11% (95% CI, 7%-17%), 14% (95% CI, 8%-22%), and 32% (95% CI, 24%-41%), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The criteria and reporting of IBC and treatment response was notably variable, with significant potential for subject heterogeneity. Pathologic complete response rates appear to be related to intensity of neoadjuvant treatment; however, this analysis is not based on randomized data. Future clinical trials should define and report the criteria for IBC diagnosis and response assessment to enhance interstudy comparisons.

Inflammatory breast cancer outcome with epirubicin-based induction and maintenance chemotherapy: ten-year results from the French Adjuvant Study Group GETIS 02 Trial

BACKGROUND

The authors evaluated the long-term efficacy and side effects in patients with nonmetastatic, unilateral, inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) who received homogeneous treatment with intensive induction chemotherapy followed by a maintenance regimen.

METHODS

One hundred twenty patients were randomized to receive high-dose fluorouracil, epirubicin, and cyclophosphamide (FEC-HD) (fluorouracil 750 mg/m(2) on Days 1 to 4, epirubicin 35 mg/m(2) on Days 2 to 4, and cyclophosphamide 400 mg/m(2) on Days 2 to 4 for 4 cycles every 21 days) with or without lenograstim. Locoregional treatment consisted of surgery and/or radiotherapy. Maintenance chemotherapy was FEC 75 (fluorouracil 500 mg/m(2), epirubicin 75 mg/m(2), and cyclophosphamide 500 mg/m(2) on Day 1 every 21 days for 4 cycles). No hormone treatment was allowed.

RESULTS

The safety of the FEC-HD regimen was described previously. Among 102 patients who underwent surgery, a pathologic complete response (pCR) was achieved by 23.5% of patients with breast tumors and by 31.4% of patients with involved axillary lymph nodes. The overall pCR rate was 14.7%. One hundred nine patients received FEC 75. After a median 10 years of follow-up, the disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) rates were 35.7% and 41.2%, respectively. The median DFS was 39 months (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 25-53 months), and the median survival was 61 months (95% CI, 43-79 months). Five patients developed a temporary decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction without congestive heart failure. In the lenograstim group, 1 patient developed acute myeloblastic leukemia M2, and 1 patient developed myelodysplastic syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

FEC-HD induction chemotherapy followed by FEC 75 maintenance regimen had moderate and acute long-term toxicities and lead to high DFS and OS rates in patients with IBC.

Update on inflammatory breast cancer

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is both the least frequent and the most severe form of epithelial breast cancer. The diagnosis is based on clinical inflammatory signs and is reinforced by pathological findings. Significant progress has been made in the management of IBC in the past 20 years. Yet survival among IBC patients is still only one-half that among patients with non-IBC. Identification of the molecular determinants of IBC would probably lead to more specific treatments and to improved survival. In the present article we review recent advances in the molecular pathogenesis of IBC. A more comprehensive view will probably be obtained by pan-genomic analysis of human IBC samples, and by functional in vitro and in vivo assays. These approaches may offer better patient outcome in the near future.

Multivariate analysis of survival in inflammatory breast cancer: impact of intensity of chemotherapy in multimodality treatment

The prognosis of inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is poor. We evaluated clinical and biopathological characteristics that could affect survival in 74 women with nonmetastatic IBC consecutively treated in our institution between 1976 and 2000. Patients received primary anthracycline-based chemotherapy at conventional doses (n=20) or high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) with haematopoietic stem cell support (HSCS) (n=54). After chemotherapy, 84% of patients underwent mastectomy, 95% were given radiotherapy and 55% tamoxifen. Immunohistochemistry data (ER, PR, ERBB2, P53) on pre-chemotherapy specimens suggested strong differences between IBC and non-IBC. The rate of pathological complete response to chemotherapy was 26% (27% with HDC and 17% with conventional doses, not significant). No single factor was found predictive of response. With a median follow-up of 48 months after diagnosis, the 5-year projected disease-free survival (DFS) was 24% and overall survival (OS) 41%. In multivariate analysis, the strongest independent prognostic factor was the delivery of HDC. The 5-year DFS and OS of patients were respectively 28 and 50% with HDC and 15 and 18% with conventional chemotherapy. These results and comparisons with other series of patients suggest a role for HDC with HSCS as part of the therapeutic approach in IBC. Further prospective studies are required to confirm it.

p53 Expression as a Prognostic Marker in Inflammatory Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare and aggressive form of breast cancer. Nuclear expression of p53 protein in breast cancer correlates with more aggressive tumors. We retrospectively analyze the expression of p53 as a prognostic marker to predict pathological complete response and survival in patients with IBC.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Fifty-nine patients with IBC were treated from January 1994 to April 2000. Forty-eight patients were included. Diagnostic core biopsies were taken before treatment was started. Expression of hormone receptors and p53 was determined by immunohistochemistry. All patients received an anthracycline-based regimen preoperatively; 22 patients (46%) also received paclitaxel. Forty-four patients (92%) achieved an objective clinical response and underwent mastectomies.

RESULTS

Median age at diagnosis was 48 years. Thirty patients (63%) had hormone receptor-negative tumors. Twenty-eight patients (58%) had p53-positive tumors, and 20 patients (42%) had p53-negative tumors. Nine patients (19%) achieved a pathological complete response. At a median follow-up of 77 months, 28 recurrences (58%) and 26 deaths (54%) had occurred. Patients with p53-positive tumors were younger (P=0.02) and tended to have lower 5-year progression-free survival rates (35% versus 55%; P=0.3) and overall survival rates (44% versus 54%; P=0.4).

CONCLUSIONS

This retrospective analysis demonstrates that nuclear p53 protein expression may represent an adverse prognostic marker in IBC and may provide a valuable tool for selecting treatment for this aggressive disease.

Update on locally advanced breast cancer

Locally advanced breast cancer remains a clinical challenge as the majority of patients with this diagnosis develop distant metastases despite appropriate therapy. Patients with locally advanced disease encompass a wide range of clinical scenarios including advanced primary tumors (stage T4), advanced nodal disease (fixed axillary nodes or involvement of ipsilateral supraclavicular, infraclavicular, or internal mammary nodes), and inflammatory carcinomas. The prognoses of women with locally advanced breast tumors are also heterogeneous and depend on tumor size, extent of lymph node involvement, and the presence or absence of inflammatory carcinoma. Women with locally advanced disease require multimodal therapy, and coordinated treatment planning among the medical oncologist, surgical oncologist, and radiation oncologist is necessary to optimize patient care. In this article, the epidemiology, evaluation, prognostic factors, and treatment for locally advanced breast cancer are discussed. Inflammatory cancer is also reviewed, but is considered separately due to its distinct biology and clinical behavior.

Clinical outcome and prognosis of patients with inflammatory breast cancer

This report analyzes clinical factors affecting outcome in 26 patients with inflammatory breast cancer. Peau d'orange was the most common clinical finding at diagnosis (65%). A palpable breast mass (PBM) was noted in 65% with axillary lymph node involvement in 81% of patients. Eighteen patients were staged as stage IIIB and eight as stage IV. Initial metastases included supraclavicular nodes (five of eight), bones (one of eight), skin (one of eight), and liver (one of eight). All patients were treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and fluorouracil, 18 patients; other, 8 patients). Partial response was the best clinical response attained in 38% of patients. Only one patient was treated with total mastectomy after neoadjuvant chemotherapy, and 19 patients received radiotherapy followed (2 patients) or not (17 patients) by mastectomy. The progression rate in stage IIIB patients was 78%, with distant sites of progression in 93% of patients and only 7% with local progression. Mean time-to-progression was 13 months (Kaplan-Meier estimates of 45% and 11% at 24 and 48 months, respectively). The median overall survival (OS) value of the entire population was 13.2 months (Kaplan-Meier estimates at 24 and 48 months of 21% and 12.5%). By Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test, a better OS was correlated with stage IIIB (p = 0.002), a PBM at diagnosis (p = 0.01), and a favorable response to initial chemotherapy (p = 0.03). Our results confirm the better clinical outcome of patients with stage IIIB and PBM at diagnosis. They also support the role for combined treatment as the best modality approach for this disease. However, overall prognosis remained poor, with recurrence and death resulting from the disease.

Paclitaxel in the multimodality treatment for inflammatory breast carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory breast carcinoma (IBC) is a rare but aggressive form of breast carcinoma. Anthracycline-based regimens represent the standard of treatment for IBC. Reports of significant clinical activity of paclitaxel in metastatic breast carcinoma led the authors to investigate the role of this drug in the management of IBC.

METHODS

Forty-four patients with IBC were enrolled between February 1994 and January 1998. The treatment plan consisted of induction chemotherapy (IC), mastectomy, adjuvant chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Forty-two patients received IC with four cycles of fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide. If the clinical response was less than partial, patients were "crossed over" to paclitaxel before mastectomy. All patients received adjuvant paclitaxel. Patients unresectable after paclitaxel were offered high-dose chemotherapy with autologous peripheral blood progenitor cell support.

RESULTS

Thirty-four patients (81%) achieved an objective clinical remission; 3 patients (7%) achieved a clinical complete remission, 31 (74%) a partial remission. Six patients (14%) achieved pathologic complete remission. Sixteen patients were treated with paclitaxel, 7 of them (44%) were able to undergo mastectomy. Median time to progression (TTP) was 22 months. Median overall survival (OS) was 46 months. Concordance between clinical and pathologic response was documented in only 8 patients (24%). No differences in TTP and OS compared with a historical group of 178 IBC patients treated with anthracycline-based regimens.

CONCLUSIONS

Paclitaxel improves tumor resectability in anthracycline-refractory IBC. The impact of paclitaxel on the prognosis of IBC needs to be better evaluated in future trials using more dose-intensive schedules of administration. New imaging modalities may contribute to improve assessment of response to IC.