Effect of nonionic surfactants on naphthalene dissolution and biodegradation

Dosage concentration and pulsing frequency affect the degradation efficiency in simulated bacterial polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading cultures

A major source of anthropogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) inputs into marine environments are diffuse emissions which result in low PAH concentrations in the ocean water, posing a potential threat for the affected ecosystems. However, the remediation of low-dosage PAH contaminations through microbial processes remains largely unknown. Here, we developed a process-based numerical model to simulate batch cultures receiving repeated low-dosage naphthalene pulses compared to the conventionally used one-time high-dosage. Pulsing frequency as well as dosage concentration had a large impact on the degradation efficiency. After 10 days, 99.7%, 97.2%, 86.6%, or 83.5% of the 145 mg L^-1 naphthalene was degraded when given as a one-time high-dosage or in 2, 5, or 10 repeated low-concentration dosages equally spaced throughout the experiment, respectively. If the simulation was altered, giving the system that received 10 pulses time to recover to 99.7%, pulsing patterns affected the degradation of naphthalene. When pulsing 10 days at once per day, naphthalene accumulated following each pulse and if the degradation was allowed to continue until the recovered state was reached, the incubation time was prolonged to 17 days with a generation time of 3.81 days. If a full recovery was conditional before the next pulse was added, the scenario elongated to 55 days and generation time increased to 14.15 days. This indicates that dissolution kinetics dominate biodegradation kinetics, and the biomass concentration of PAH-degrading bacteria alone is not a sufficient indicator for quantifying active biodegradation. Applying those findings to the environment, a one-time input of a high dosage is potentially degraded faster than repeated low-dosage PAH pollution and repeated low-dosage input could lead to PAH accumulation in vulnerable pristine environments. Further research on the overlooked field of chronic low-dosage PAH contamination is necessary.

Practical considerations and challenges involved in surfactant enhanced bioremediation of oil

Surfactant enhanced bioremediation (SEB) of oil is an approach adopted to overcome the bioavailability constraints encountered in biotransformation of nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL) pollutants. Fuel oils contain n-alkanes and other aliphatic hydrocarbons, monoaromatics, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Although hydrocarbon degrading cultures are abundant in nature, complete biodegradation of oil is rarely achieved even under favorable environmental conditions due to the structural complexity of oil and culture specificities. Moreover, the interaction among cultures in a consortium, substrate interaction effects during the degradation and ability of specific cultures to alter the bioavailability of oil invariably affect the process. Although SEB has the potential to increase the degradation rate of oil and its constituents, there are numerous challenges in the successful application of this technology. Success is dependent on the choice of appropriate surfactant type and dose since the surfactant-hydrocarbon-microorganism interaction may be unique to each scenario. Surfactants not only enhance the uptake of constituents through micellar solubilization and emulsification but can also alter microbial cell surface characteristics. Moreover, hydrocarbons partitioned in micelles may not be readily bioavailable depending on the microorganism-surfactant interactions. Surfactant toxicity and inherent biodegradability of surfactants may pose additional challenges as discussed in this review.

Degradation of hexadecane by Enterobacter cloacae strain TU that secretes an exopolysaccharide as a bioemulsifier

A Gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium, previously shown to utilize alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), was identified as Enterobacter cloacae (GenBank accession number, GQ426323) by 16S rRNA sequence analysis and was designated as strain TU. During growing on n-hexadecane as the sole carbon source, the strain TU extracellularly released an exopolysaccharide (EPS) exhibiting bioemulsifying activity into the surrounding medium. The EPS was found to be composed of glucose and galactose with molecular weight of 12.4+/-0.4 kDa. The structure of the EPS was postulated according to by 1D/2D NMR, as follows: -D-Glcp-(1 --> 3)-alpha-d-GlcpAc-(1 --> 3)-alpha-D-Galp-(1 --> 4)-alpha-D-Galp-(1 -->. While an enhanced emulsification and aqueous partitioning of n-hexadecane was displayed as functions of the EPS concentration, the EPS neutralized the zeta potential of E. cloacae TU cell and elevated the surface hydrophobicity of the cells, as determined by the microorganisms adhering to hydrocarbon assay (MATH). This was found to favor the bioavailability of n-hexadecane when it served as the sole carbon source for E. cloacae TU and thereby contributed to the accelerated degradation of this hydrocarbon.

Surfactant-mediated Biodegradation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic environmental pollutants that are known or suspected carcinogens or mutagens. Bioremediation has been used as a general way to eliminate them from the contaminated sites or aquifers, but their biodegradation is rather limited due to their low bioavailability because of their sparingly soluble nature. Surfactant-mediated biodegradation is a promising alternative. The presence of surfactants can increase the solubility of PAHs and hence potentially increase their bioavailability. However, inconclusive results have been reported on the effects of surfactant on the biodegradation of PAHs. In this work, surfactant-mediated biodegradation of PAHs is reviewed.

Use of a whole-cell biosensor to assess the bioavailability enhancement of aromatic hydrocarbon compounds by nonionic surfactants

The whole-cell bioluminescent biosensor Pseudomonas putida F1G4 (PpF1G4), which contains a chromosomally-based sep-lux transcriptional fusion, was used as a tool for direct measurement of the bioavailability of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) partitioned into surfactant micelles. The increased bioluminescent response of PpF1G4 in micellar solutions (up to 10 times the critical micellar concentration) of Triton X-100 and Brij 35 indicated higher intracellular concentrations of the test compounds, toluene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene, compared to control systems with no surfactants present. In contrast, Brij 30 caused a decrease in the bioluminescent response to the test compounds in single-solute systems, without adversely affecting cell growth. The decrease in bioluminescent response in the presence of Brij 30 did not occur in the presence of multiple HOCs extracted into the surfactant solutions from crude oil and creosote. The effect of the micellar solutions on the toluene biodegradation rate was consistent with the bioluminescent response in single-solute systems. None of the surfactants were toxic to PpF1G4 at the doses employed in this study, and PpF1G4 did not produce a bioluminescent response to the surfactants nor utilize them as growth substrates. TEM images suggest that the surfactants did not rupture the cell membranes. The results demonstrate that for Pseudomonas putida F1, nonionic surfactants such as Triton X-100 and Brij 35, at doses between 2 and 10 CMC, may increase the bioavailability and direct uptake of micellar phase HOCs that are common pollutants at contaminated sites.

Effect of the synthesized mycolic acid on the biodegradation of diesel oil by Gordonia nitida strain LE31

The dynamics of diesel oil biodegradation were previously investigated at initial substrate concentrations of 1000 to 20,000 ppm using Gordonia nitida isolated from wastewater. Following the gas chromatogram profiles of diesel oil degradation, diesel oil with concentrations of up to 15,000 ppm was efficiently degraded by this strain. At a concentrations of 20,000 ppm, however, the degradation by this strain was not effective. The enhancement of the biodegradation of diesel oi1 (at 15,000 and 20,000 ppm) by a synthetic mycolic acid biosurfactant (at 9, 90 and 900 ppm) was also investigated. In G. nitida inoculated cultures, the degradation of diesel oil was enhanced by the biosurfactant. For comparison, diesel oil degradation in batch incubations was measured after the addition of rhamnolipid and other surfactants. Synthetic mycolic acid enhanced the degradation to a greater extent than any other surfactant tested. Additionally, it was demonstrated that the degradation-enhancing property of synthetic mycolic acid was similar to that of rhamnolipid and Tween 80.

The enhancement by surfactants of hexadecane degradation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa varies with substrate availability

The rhamnolipid biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa influences various processes related to hydrocarbon degradation. However, degradation can only be enhanced by the surfactant when it stimulates a process that is rate limiting under the applied conditions. Therefore we determined how rhamnolipid influences hexadecane degradation by P. aeruginosa UG2 under conditions differing in hexadecane availability. The rate of hexadecane degradation in shake flask cultures was lower for hexadecane entrapped in a matrix with 6 nm pores (silica 60) or in quartz sand than for hexadecane immobilized in matrices with pore sizes larger than 300 nm or for hexadecane present as a separate liquid phase. This indicates that the availability of hexadecane decreased with decreasing pore size under these conditions. The rate-limiting step for hexadecane entrapped in silica 60 was the mass transfer of substrate from the matrix to the bulk liquid phase, whereas for hexadecane present as a second liquid phase it was the uptake of the substrate by the cells. Hexadecane degradation in batch incubations was accelerated by the addition of rhamnolipid or other surfactants in all experiments except in those where hexadecane was entrapped in silica 60, indicating that the surfactants stimulated uptake of hexadecane by the cells. Since rhamnolipid stimulated the degradation rate in batch experiments to a greater extent than any of the other 14 surfactants tested, hexadecane uptake was apparently more enhanced by rhamnolipid than by the other surfactants. Although rhamnolipid did not stimulate the release of hexadecane from silica 60 under conditions of intense agitation, it significantly enhanced this rate during column experiments in the absence of strain UG2. The results demonstrate that rhamnolipid enhances degradation by stimulating release of entrapped substrate in column studies under conditions of low agitation and by stimulating uptake of substrate by the cells, especially when degradation is not limited by release of substrate from the matrices.

Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons dissolved in Tween 80 surfactant solutions by Sphingomonas paucimobilis EPA 505

The degradation rates of mixtures of pyrene (PYR), fluoranthene (FLA), and phenanthrene (PHE) by Sphingomonas paucimobilis EPA 505 were measured in the presence of the nonionic surfactant Tween 80. For strain EPA 505, FLA and PHE are growth substrates, while PYR is not. Linear degradation rates ranging from 0.05 to 2.2 mg x L(-1) x h(-1) were observed for FLA, PYR, and PHE at approximately 10(7) colony-forming units (CFU)/mL. At lower biomass, PYR degradation exhibited lognormal degradation. The degradation rates of PYR, FLA, and PHE increased with increasing biomass and substrate concentration. At high FLA concentrations, FLA degradation rates were faster in the presence of surfactant than in the absence of surfactant, suggesting that some of the FLA was transported directly into the cell from the micellar phase. In mixtures, PHE was the preferred substrate and was utilized first, followed by FLA and then PYR. Once the competing substrates were degraded, the remaining substrate was degraded at the same rate or faster than the rate found in the single-substrate system. Based on the results with Tween 80, it appears that PHE, PYR, and FLA are competing for the same enzymatic sites.

Enhanced naphthalene solubility in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate: effect of critical micelle concentration

Surfactants can increase the solubility of non-polar compounds, and have been applied in areas such as soil washing and treatment of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). This investigation explored the feasibility of removing vapor phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) from gases using an anionic surfactant. The solubility of vapor phase naphthalene was measured herein using gas chromatograph (GC) with a photon ionization detector (PID). The measurement results indicated that surfactant molecules were not favorable to micelle formation when temperatures increased from 25 degrees C to 50 degrees C. Regardless of whether solutions were quiescent or agitated, equilibrium naphthalene apparent solubility increased linearly with surfactant concentrations exceeding critical micelle concentration (CMC). The pH effects on naphthalene apparent solubility were small. Agitation increased naphthalene apparent solubility and lumped mass transfer coefficients. Furthermore, lumped mass transfer coefficients decreased with increasing surfactant concentration owing to increase in interfacial resistance and viscosity and decreased spherical micelle diffusion coefficients. Finally, the net absorption rate increased because the solubilization effects of micelles exceeded the reduction effects of mass transfer coefficient above the CMC. The enhanced naphthalene apparent solubility from the addition of surfactant can be expressed by an enrichment factor (EF). The EF value of naphthalene for the surfactant solution at 0.1 M with agitation at 270 rpm relative to quiescent water could reach 18.6. This work confirms that anionic surfactant can improve the removal efficiency of hydrophobic organic compound (HOC) from the gas phase.