Weight concern across the life-span: relationship to self-esteem and feminist identity

What about being a feminist is protective? An examination of constructs related to feminist beliefs as moderators of the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization

Feminist beliefs have been identified as a potential protective factor in the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization; however, the precise reason why feminist beliefs serve this role is unclear. A series of three studies examined the reasons why feminist beliefs may be protective in non-student samples, considering as possible explanations open-minded thinking, critical thinking, and media attitudes and literacy. Study 1 showed that the moderating role of feminist beliefs on the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization held in a non-undergraduate sample. Study 2 found that feminist beliefs and self-identifying as a feminist were related to open-minded thinking, critical thinking, and media attitudes and literacy. Study 3 found that most of these constructs did not serve the same moderating role as feminist beliefs. However, a complex relationship emerged when both feminist self-identification and media attitudes and literacy were considered simultaneously as moderators, adding to the literature emphasizing that self-identifying as a feminist has a protective role over and above that of merely holding feminist beliefs. These results suggest that feminist beliefs may be a unique combination of these constructs or that there may be yet a different reason why feminist beliefs are protective against thin-ideal internalization.

Eating pathology in midlife women: Similar or different to younger counterparts?

OBJECTIVE

This study examined potential similarities and differences between women with eating disorders (EDs) in midlife and their younger counterparts.

METHOD

Seven hundred and three women assessed by a specialist eating disorder service were divided into three groups based on age (18-25, 25-40, and 40+) and compared on a number of clinical and demographic measures. Distribution of ED diagnoses was also examined between groups.

RESULTS

Midlife women were less likely to receive a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa and more likely to receive a diagnosis of binge-eating disorder than their younger counterparts. Duration of illness was longer and age of ED onset later in the midlife group but no differences were seen on measures of global ED pathology, psychosocial impairment, or psychological distress.

DISCUSSION

This study adds to the developing literature concerning EDs in midlife women, although further work is needed to support the findings presented here and to examine profiles of males presenting to treatment centers.

Self-esteem and Body Mass Index from Adolescence to Mid-adulthood. A 26-year Follow-up

PURPOSE

This study examined the developmental trajectories of self-esteem and body mass index (BMI) from adolescence to mid-adulthood and the way the association between self-esteem and BMI changed during a 26-year follow-up.

METHODS

Participants of a Finnish cohort study in 1983 at 16 years (N = 2194) were followed up at ages 22 (N = 1656), 32 (N = 1471), and 42 (N = 1334) using postal questionnaires. Measures at each time point covered self-esteem and self-reported weight and height. Analyses were done using latent growth curve models (LGM) and difference scores.

RESULTS

In LGM analyses among females both the initial levels (r = -0.13) and slopes (r = -0.26) of the self-esteem and BMI trajectories correlated negatively. Among males, there were no significant correlations between self-esteem and BMI growth factors. The association between increasing BMI and decreasing self-esteem among females was strongest between ages 22 and 32 (r = -0.16), while among males, increases in BMI and self-esteem correlated positively (r = 0.11) during that period. Among females, cross-sectional correlations between self-esteem and BMI showed an increasing trend (p < 0.001) from age 16 (r = -0.07) to age 42 (r = -0.17), whereas among males negative correlation (r = -0.08) emerged only in mid-adulthood at age 42.

CONCLUSION

Among females, higher and increasing BMI is associated with lower and more slowly increasing self-esteem. This association is not restricted to adolescent years but persists and gets stronger in mid-adulthood. Among males, associations are weaker but indicate more age-related differences. The results highlight the need for interventions that tackle weight-related stigma and discrimination, especially among women with higher body weight and size.

Women’s Experiences of Appearance Concern and Body Control across the Lifespan: Challenging accepted wisdom

This study adopted a lifespan approach to women’s experiences of appearance concern and body control. Thirty-two women (aged 16 to 77) were interviewed about their exercise and food regulation. Results of the grounded theory analysis challenge social constructions of appearance concern as associated principally with the reproductive years, and of the body as malleable, and highlight the complexity of the relationship between appearance concern and body control. Despite frequent persistence of (or increase in) appearance concern beyond young adulthood, ‘healthier’ responses to appearance concern occurred due to changing priorities and increasing awareness. Findings highlight the utility of an inclusive and qualitative approach, and the absence of simple and sovereign factors determining an individual’s levels of appearance concern or body control.

What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition

A decade ago, research on positive body image as a unique construct was relatively nonexistent, and now this area is flourishing. How and why did positive body image scholarship emerge? What is known about this contemporary construct? This article situates and contextualizes positive body image within Cash's scholarship, eating disorder prevention efforts, feminist influences, strength-based disciplines within psychology, and Buddhism. Extracting insights from quantitative and qualitative research, this article demonstrates that positive body image is (a) distinct from negative body image; (b) multifaceted (including body appreciation, body acceptance/love, conceptualizing beauty broadly, adaptive investment in appearance, inner positivity, interpreting information in a body-protective manner); (c) holistic; (d) stable and malleable; (e) protective; (f) linked to self-perceived body acceptance by others; and (g) shaped by social identities. Complementing what positive body image is, this article further details what positive body image is not to provide a more nuanced understanding of this construct.

Considerations of positive body image across various social identities and special populations

Although the study of body image has been dominated by a focus on negative aspects, recent research interest has turned towards positive body image. The purpose of the present paper is to provide an integrative review of empirical research on the positive body image of individuals across a range of social identities beyond the typical college student. In particular, the review focuses on research exploring age, culture, gender, and special populations. Overall, the review finds that positive body image seems to confer benefit and operate similarly across a range of populations, although it may be expressed uniquely in different contexts. These results contribute to a more complete account of positive body image, but also raise a number of important additional questions and challenges for future research.

Body appreciation in adult women: relationships with age and body satisfaction

The major aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of age on positive body image (operationalized as body appreciation) across the female lifespan. A secondary aim was to examine the effect of age on the relationship between positive body image and body satisfaction. Participants were 158 women aged between 18 and 75 years who completed questionnaire measures of body appreciation and body dissatisfaction-satisfaction. A significant positive linear relationship was found between age and body appreciation; that is, older women had higher levels of body appreciation than their younger counterparts. Although body appreciation was positively correlated with body dissatisfaction-satisfaction across all age groups, the association was weaker for older women. The results contribute to a richer picture of women's body image across the lifespan, as well as confirming positive body image as something beyond the mere absence of body dissatisfaction.

The impact of appearance-focused social comparisons on body image disturbance in the naturalistic environment: the roles of thin-ideal internalization and feminist beliefs

Drawing on Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory and its modern applications, this research investigated the relationship between upward appearance-focused social comparisons and body image disturbance using ecological momentary assessment, which allows for examination of these phenomena in their natural context. Participants were 91 undergraduate women who answered questionnaires five times per day for five days using Palm Personal Data Assistant (PDA) devices. Analyses were conducted using hierarchical linear modeling, which allows for examination of longitudinal data both within and across participants. Results revealed a positive relationship between upward appearance-focused social comparisons and body image disturbance. Upward appearance-focused social comparisons were associated with greater body image disturbance for those with higher levels of thin-ideal internalization and with greater body checking for women with lower levels of feminist beliefs. These findings further illuminate the nature of the relationship between social comparisons and body image disturbance.

Predicting ideal body mass index: what does clothing size have to do with it?

This study examined demographic and anthropometric variables as predictors of ideal body mass index (BMI) from cross-sectional, archival, self-reported data from the Psychology of Size Survey of 4014 U.S. residents collected in 2007. As hypothesized, ideal BMI can be predicted by a within gender hierarchical multiple regression analysis with the predictor variables of age, number of clothing sizes from ideal size, and current BMI; these variables account for 54.1% of variance in women's ideal BMI and 65.5% of variance in men's ideal BMI. Findings also demonstrated a logarithmic relationship between current BMI and ideal BMI, with increasing variance in ideal BMI for individuals with high current BMIs. These findings evidence the strong role of current body characteristics in the formation of ideals. Understanding how individuals conceptualize body ideals can inform researchers and practitioners alike, as this evidence has important implications related to both medical and psychological health.

Minding the gap between feminist identity and attitudes: the behavioral and ideological divide between feminists and non-labelers

Sexism persists in the contemporary United States and has deleterious effects on women and girls. This suggests that feminism--as a movement, a set of attitudes, or an explicit identity--is still warranted. Although feminist attitudes may buffer against the effects of sexism, notably in health domains, we suggest that there may be an ideological divide between those who hold such attitudes while rejecting the identity (non-labelers) and self-identified feminists. Non-labelers engage in less collective action on behalf of women's rights. On the basis of survey responses of 276 college students, non-labelers appear to be self-interested. We argue that disentangling attitudes from identity is crucial for sharpening predictions about the relation of feminism to other psychological and behavioral variables, and for engaging in broader social change. Furthermore, understanding whether non-labelers' rejection of feminist identity is rooted in fear of stigma associated with the label, neoliberal beliefs, or other explanations is important to those organizing for reform.

Body satisfaction and pressure to be thin in younger and older Muslim and non-Muslim women: the role of Western and non-Western dress preferences

Younger and older Muslim and non-Muslim women living in the United States completed questionnaires about body satisfaction and their internalization of Western standards of beauty (thin-ideal). Younger Muslim women wearing non-Western clothing and a head veil were significantly less likely to express drive for thinness or pressure to attain a thin-ideal standard of beauty than women wearing Western dress or younger women wearing non-Western dress without a head veil. Older women, while expressing greater discrepancy between their ideal body shape and their current body shape, and less satisfaction with their bodies than younger women, reported less drive for thinness and less pressure to attain the Western thin-ideal standard of beauty than younger women. These results are discussed in terms of how factors such as age and religion may serve as protective factors against a strong or unhealthy drive for thinness or thin-ideal standard.

Shopping for clothes: Body satisfaction, appearance investment, and functions of clothing among female shoppers

The present study aimed to investigate the link between clothing and body experience in women of different ages. Participants were 162 female clothes shoppers between the ages of 18 and 55 who completed questionnaire measures of body image, functions of clothing, self-esteem, and enjoyment of clothes shopping. It was found that clothing was worn primarily for assurance and fashion by women of all ages. On the other hand, BMI and body dissatisfaction were related to the use of clothing for camouflage purposes and to a more negative clothes shopping experience. Both components of appearance investment were related to choice of clothes for fashion and assurance. However, the self-evaluative salience component was negatively related, while the motivational salience was positively related, to enjoyment of clothes shopping. It was concluded that although clothing is an under-researched aspect of body image, it represents an important part of women's appearance management, whatever their age.

Body image and eating disorders in older adults: a review

Researchers have shown body image to be an important part of a person's self-concept and have linked body dissatisfaction to various psychopathologies, most frequently eating disorders. However, the majority of the literature to date has focused on adolescents and college-aged samples, with little attention paid to the course of body image and eating disorders throughout the life span. The present article reviews the available literature on body image and eating disorders in older adults to understand more fully the unique presentation of body concerns and disordered eating across the life span. The authors address unique factors affecting body dissatisfaction and the development of eating disorders among older adults and offer directions for future research.

The influence of feminist ascription on judgements of women's physical attractiveness

The present study examined the effect of feminist ascription on perceptions of the physical attractiveness of women ranging in body mass index (BMI). One-hundred and twenty-nine women who self-identified as feminists and 132 who self-identified as non-feminists rated a series of 10 images of women that varied in BMI from emaciated to obese. Results showed no significant differences between feminist and non-feminists in the figure they considered to be maximally attractive. However, feminists were more likely to positively perceive a wider range of body sizes than non-feminists. These results are discussed in relation to possible protective factors against the internalisation of the thin ideal and body objectification.

Self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, and body dissatisfaction in older European American women: exploring age and feminism as moderators

This study examined the influence of feminist attitudes on self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, and body dissatisfaction in middle age and older women. The participants were 138 European American heterosexual women ranging in age from 40 to 87 years old. Consistent with previous research, self-objectification and habitual body monitoring were positively correlated with body dissatisfaction and, self-objectification and habitual body monitoring remained stable across the lifespan. While age did not moderate the relationship between self-objectification and body dissatisfaction, age was found to moderate the relationship between habitual body monitoring and body dissatisfaction such that the relationship was smaller for older women than for middle-aged women. Interestingly, feminist attitudes were not significantly correlated with body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, or habitual body monitoring, and endorsement of feminist attitudes was not found to moderate the relationship between self-objectification or habitual body monitoring and body dissatisfaction. Potential implications for older women are discussed.

Examination of a multi-factorial model of body-related experiences during pregnancy: the relationships among physical symptoms, sleep quality, depression, self-esteem, and negative body attitudes

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate relationships among women's body attitudes, physical symptoms, self-esteem, depression, and sleep quality during pregnancy. Pregnant women (N=215) at 15-25 weeks gestation completed a questionnaire including four body image subscales assessing self-reported feeling fat, attractiveness, strength/fitness, and salience of weight and shape. Women reported on 29 pregnancy-related physical complaints, and completed the Beck Depression Inventory, Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. In regressions, controlling for retrospective reports of body image, more frequent and intense physical symptoms were related to viewing the self as less strong/fit, and to poorer sleep quality and more depressive symptoms. In a multi-factorial model extending previous research, paths were found from sleep quality to depressive symptoms to self-esteem; self-esteem was found to be a mediator associated with lower scores on feeling fat and salience of weight and shape, and on higher perceived attractiveness.

Sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction: could feminist beliefs be a moderating factor?

Theory and research suggest that sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, and self-objectification are associated with body dissatisfaction, while feminist beliefs may serve a protective function. This research examined thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification as mediators and feminist beliefs as a moderator in the relationship between sociocultural pressures to meet the thin-ideal and body dissatisfaction. Female undergraduate volunteers (N=195) completed self-report measures assessing sociocultural influences, feminist beliefs, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. Multisample structural equation modeling showed that feminist beliefs moderate the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization, but not the relationship between social influence and thin-ideal internalization. Research and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Analysis of bulimic symptomatology across age and geographic locations

The purpose of this study was two-fold: a) to investigate the relationship between age and bulimic symptoms among a sample of women with a broad age range; and b) to investigate the relationship between geographic location within the United States and bulimic symptoms. The sample consisted of 1807 female health professionals from six different states (NC, VA, OH, LA, TN, and MO). Analyses revealed that there were no differences between the age groups on bulimic symptoms. There were differences across geographic locations on bulimic symptoms, such that the South Atlantic (NC, VA) states reported the most bulimic symptoms. Findings suggest that age may not serve as a protective factor against bulimic symptoms as some previous studies have suggested. These findings also provide further evidence on the influence of environment on bulimic symptoms among a sample of women.

Two-three-year stability and interrelations of bulimotypic indicators and depressive and anxious symptoms in middle-aged women

OBJECTIVE

There is a paucity of research examining eating disorder symptoms among middle-aged women.

METHOD

This prospective study assessed the stability of bulimic symptoms and 5 associated variables (perfectionism, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, anxiety symptoms, and perceived weight status) in a sample of 150 middle-aged women (mean age = 45.19 years) over a 2.5-year time period. In addition, interrelations among bulimic, anxiety, and depressive symptoms were assessed.

RESULTS

Results suggested that all 6 bulimia-related variables remained significantly stable over 2.5 years. In addition, notable relations between Time 1 and Time 2 variables emerged (e.g., anxious symptoms at Time 1 predicted bulimic symptoms at Time 2).

CONCLUSION

Thus, the results indicate that bulimic symptoms exist in middle-aged women, and that they remain relatively stable over a 2.5-year time period. Clinical implications for middle-aged women with eating disorder symptoms are discussed.

Sociocultural context of women's body image

In our society, women's bodies are the locus of both increasing rates of obesity and body dissatisfaction. While these trends may seem contradictory or to result from each other, an alternative explanation is that they are both the products of an unfavourable sociocultural environment in the area of food and weight. Both body dissatisfaction and excess weight can seriously impact women's physical and emotional health. The strong cultural value placed on thinness, especially for women, unfortunately may take precedence over health. To effectively address the impact of women's body image dissatisfaction requires an understanding of the multiple contexts of women's lives. This study used a naturalistic paradigm to explore how women's personal and sociocultural context influences their body image. Forty-four non-eating disordered women ranging from 21 to 61 years old were interviewed twice using a semi-structured interview guide. Women's narratives revealed that body image is not a static construct, but is dynamic and fluctuates as women encounter new experiences and re-interpret old ones. The powerful and unconscious impact of the media on body image was mediated by women's internal contexts (self-confident and self-critical) and their relationships with others, such as partners and other women. Body image was not so much influenced by the nature of others' comments but interpretation of their meaning. However, health professionals' comments were typically not reinterpreted due to the health context in which they were given. While some women's narratives expressed their internalized sociocultural norms, others' described acceptance of their bodies following a process of reflection and empowerment. In light of these findings, efforts to improve women's body image, and by extension their health, can no longer only focus on diminishing the tangible power of industry and media, but must include transforming the social ties, practices and conventions in everyday relationships, including with health professionals.

Body dissatisfaction in midlife women

We examined the extent and correlates of body dissatisfaction among 1026 54-year-old women from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development. Weight dissatisfaction was reported by nearly 80% of the sample and by over 50% of 'normal weight' women (BMI < 25). Women indicated being most dissatisfied with their bodies currently, relative to their younger years, including their forties. Adjusting for BMI, dissatisfaction was highest in higher social class women and in those who rated themselves in poorer health. Women with poor body esteem, regardless of body size, were likely to avoid various everyday situations because of how they felt about their bodies. Adjusting for BMI, women who were happy with their weight were more likely to report distress about other aspects of their appearance. We suggest that body dissatisfaction in women of this age group merits further attention.

Talking about taste: using a discursive psychological approach to examine challenges to food evaluations

This study is concerned with developing the interdisciplinary nature of food research, and with examining eating practices as they occur in everyday situations. The aim is to demonstrate how discursive approaches may contribute to eating research using a specific analytical example. A discursive psychological approach is used to examine mealtime conversations from 10 families with the analysis focusing on how food evaluations are challenged in interaction-for example, asking someone to justify what they think is 'wrong' with the food. Data are presented with 7 examples of the 30 challenges that were found within the data corpus. The analysis demonstrates how people may be held accountable for their expressed taste preferences when being challenged, and how this contributes to our understanding of eating as primarily an individual and embodied experience. It is argued that a specific and detailed analysis of eating interactions provides an alternative way of conceptualising food evaluations as discursive rather than mentalistic concepts. A discursive approach also opens up practical ways in which the social and familial aspects of eating may be examined as they occur as part of food practices.

Body image across the adult life span: stability and change

By far, the majority of studies investigating body image in adults have drawn samples from college populations within a very narrow age range. The purpose of the present paper is to review empirical research on the body image of adults older than the typical college student. There are marked changes in appearance across the adult life span, especially for women, which lead to the expectation of concomitant changes in body image. In fact, the review found that body dissatisfaction was remarkably stable across the adult life span for women, at least until they are quite elderly. In contrast, the importance of body shape, weight and appearance decreased as women aged, underscoring an important distinction between evaluation and importance of the body. However, there are many large gaps and limitations in the current literature that will need to be addressed before a more complete understanding of the development of body image across the adult life span is achieved.

The relationship between women's body satisfaction and self-image across the life span: the role of cognitive control

The authors examined the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-image across the life span. A sample of 106 women between the ages of 20 and 65 years completed questionnaire measures of body dissatisfaction, body importance, cognitive control over the body, self-concept, and self-esteem. The authors found that body dissatisfaction and body importance did not differ among the groups of women who were younger, middle aged, and older. Although body dissatisfaction was related to self-concept and self-esteem for the entire sample, the strength of that relationship reduced with increasing age and increasing perceptions of cognitive control. The authors concluded that the cognitive strategies of women who were older protect their self-concept and self-esteem from the influence of body dissatisfaction.

Rationales for Food Refusal in Chinese Patients with Anorexia Nervosa

OBJECTIVE

To study the rationales for food refusal among Chinese patients with typical and atypical anorexia nervosa.

METHOD

Forty-eight consecutive patients with broadly defined anorexia nervosa underwent evaluation with a self-report rationale for food refusal questionnaire, the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), the 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-21), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), and other clinical assessments.

RESULTS

Fat-phobic patients (N = 32) had a significantly higher premorbid body mass index than non-fat-phobic patients (N = 16), but they did not differ on other clinical parameters, GHQ-12, BDI-21, and HDRS scores. At clinical presentation, 3 months, and 1 year prior to presentation, fat phobia and stomach bloating were the most common rationales for food refusal among fat-phobic and non-fat-phobic patients, respectively. A total of 31% of fat-phobic patients endorsed non-fat-phobic rationales at the time of clinical presentation, whereas non-fat-phobic patients adhered to non-fat-phobic attributions more consistently.

DISCUSSION

The rationales used by anorexic patients to explain noneating are more varied than implied in the 4th ed. of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavior Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. A broadened conceptualization of anorexia nervosa may enhance an understanding of patients' illness experiences and enliven research on eating disorders.

Body image across the life span in adult women: the role of self-objectification

This study aimed to investigate women's body image across the entire life span from within the theoretical perspective provided by objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T.-A. Roberts, 1997). In a cross-sectional study, a sample of 322 women ranging in age from 20 to 84 years completed a questionnaire measuring body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and its proposed consequences. Although body dissatisfaction remained stable across the age range, self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, appearance anxiety, and disordered eating symptomatology all significantly decreased with age. Self-objectification was found to mediate the relationship between age and disordered eating symptomatology. It was concluded that objectification theory helps clarify the processes involved in the changes in body image that occur with age.

Body image, body dissatisfaction, and eating attitudes in midlife and elderly women

Cohort differences in body image, drive for thinness, and eating attitudes in middle-aged and elderly women were examined. Participants were 125 women between the ages of 50 and 65 (middle-aged group), and 125 women 66 years old and older (elderly group). Instruments used were figure ratings (Stunkard, Sorensen, & Schulsinger, 1983), and scales of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner,Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983). Items were developed to assess fear of aging. The middle-aged group, as compared to the elderly group, had more drive for thinness, disinhibited eating, and interoceptive confusion. The elderly group reported body size preferences and levels of body dissatisfaction that were similar to the younger women. There was a positive relationship between fear of aging and disordered eating. Sociocultural standards of body image and pressures toward thinness affect different generations of older women in similar ways.