Cysteine-containing histone H1-like (PL-I) proteins of sperm

The protamines of the noble false widow spider Steatoda nobilis provide an example of liquid-liquid phase separation chromatin transitions during spermiogenesis

While there is extensive information about sperm nuclear basic proteins (SNBP) in vertebrates, there is very little information about Arthropoda by comparison. This paper aims to contribute to filling this gap by analyzing these proteins in the sperm of the noble false widow spider Steatoda nobilis (Order Araneae, Family Theridiidae). To this end, we have developed a protein extraction method that allows the extraction of cysteine-containing protamines suitable for the preparation and analysis of SNBPs from samples where the amount of starting tissue material is limited. We carried out top-down mass spectrometry sequencing and molecular phylogenetic analyses to characterize the protamines of S. nobilis and other spiders. We also used electron microscopy to analyze the chromatin organization of the sperm, and we found it to exhibit liquid-liquid phase spinodal decomposition during the late stages of spermiogenesis. These studies further our knowledge of the distribution of SNBPs within the animal kingdom and provide additional support for a proposed evolutionary origin of many protamines from a histone H1 (H5) replication-independent precursor.

Genomic and expression analysis of transition proteins in Drosophila

The current study was aimed at analyzing putative protein sequences of the transition protein-like proteins in 12 Drosophila species based on the reference sequences of transition protein-like protein (Tpl (94D) ) expressed in Drosophila melanogaster sperm nuclei. Transition proteins aid in transforming chromatin from a histone-based nucleosome structure to a protamine-based structure during spermiogenesis - the post-meiotic stage of spermatogenesis. Sequences were obtained from NCBI Ref-Seq database using NCBI ORF-Finder (PSI-BLAST). Sequence alignments and analysis of the amino acid content indicate that orthologs for Tpl (94D) are present in the melanogaster species subgroup (D. simulans, D. sechellia, D. erecta, and D. yakuba), D. ananassae, and D. pseudoobscura, but absent in D. persmilis, D. willistoni, D. mojavensis, D. virilis, and D. grimshawi. Transcriptome next generation sequence (RNA-Seq) data for testes and ovaries was used to conduct differential gene expression analysis for Tpl (94D) in D. melanogaster, D. simulans, D. yakuba, D. ananassae, and D. pseudoobscura. The identified Tpl (94D) orthologs show high expression in the testes as compared to the ovaries. Additionally, 2 isoforms of Tpl (94D) were detected in D. melanogaster with isoform A being much more highly expressed than isoform B. Functional analyses of the conserved region revealed that the same high mobility group (HMG) box/DNA binding region is conserved for both Drosophila Tpl (94D) and Drosophila protamine-like proteins (MST35Ba and MST35Bb). Based on the rigorous bioinformatic approach and the conservation of the HMG box reported in this work, we suggest that the Drosophila Tpl (94D) orthologs should be classified as their own transition protein group.

Sperm nuclear basic proteins of tunicates and the origin of protamines

Sperm nuclear basic proteins (SNBPs) are the chromosomal proteins that are found associated with DNA in sperm nuclei at the end of spermiogenesis. These highly specialized proteins can be classified into three major types: histone type (H-type), protamine-like type (PL-type), and protamine type (P-type). A hypothesis from early studies on the characterization of SNBPs proposed a mechanism for the vertical evolution of these proteins that involved an H1 → PL → P transition. However, the processes and mechanisms involved in such a transition were not understood. In particular, it was not clear how a molecular transition from a lysine-rich protein precursor (H1 histone) to the arginine-rich protamines might have taken place. In deuterostomes, the presence of SNBPs of the H-type in echinoderms and of protamines in the higher phylogenetic groups of vertebrates had long been known. The initial work on the characterization of tunicate SNBPs attempted to define the types and range of SNBPs that characterize this phylogenetically intermediate group. It was found that tunicate SNBPs belong to the PL-type. In this work we discuss how the study of SNBPs in the tunicates has been key to providing support to the H1 → PL → P transition. Most significantly, it was in tunicates that a potential molecular mechanism to explain the lysine-to-arginine transition was first reported.

A sperm nuclear basic protein from the sperm of the marine worm Chaetopterus variopedatus with sequence similarity to the arginine-rich C-termini of chordate protamine-likes

The sperm nuclear basic proteins (SNBPs) of the marine annelid worm Chaetopterus variopedatus have been shown previously to consist of a mixture of two SNBPs: histone H1-like (CvH1) and C.variopedatus protamine-like (CvPL). Here, we report the structural characterization of CvPL. The protein has a molecular weight of 8370.5 Da, a K/R ratio of 0.34, and a secondary structure, which are intermediate between those of protamine (P) and protamine-like (PL) SNBPs. The N-terminal sequence of CvPL shows a high extent of similarity with the arginine-rich C-terminal domain of chordate PL-type SNBPs. Furthermore, the protein binds to DNA in a similar fashion as vertebrate PLs and their own CvH1, but in a way that is different from that of the lysine-rich somatic H1 histones. We have experimentally determined the molar ratio CvH1:CvPL to be ∼1:6 in C. variopedatus sperm. Based on all of these, a model is proposed for the organization of the sperm chromatin by CvH1 and CvPL.

Histone H1 and the origin of protamines

We present evidence that chordate protamines have evolved from histone H1. During the final stages of spermatogenesis, the compaction of DNA in many organisms is accomplished by the replacement of histones with a class of arginine-rich proteins called protamines. In other organisms, however, condensation of sperm DNA can occur with comparable efficiency in the presence of somatic-type histones or, alternatively, an intermediate class of proteins called protamine-like proteins. The idea that the highly specialized sperm chromosomal proteins (protamines) and somatic chromosomal proteins (histones) could be related dates back almost to the discovery of these proteins. Although this notion has frequently been revisited since that time, there has been a complete lack of supporting experimental evidence. Here we show that the emergence of protamines in chordates occurred very quickly, as a result of the conversion of a lysine-rich histone H1 to an arginine-rich protamine. We have characterized the sperm nuclear basic proteins of the tunicate Styela montereyensis, which we show consists of both a protamine and a sperm-specific histone H1 with a protamine tail. Comparison of the genes encoding these proteins to that of a sister protochordate, Ciona intestinalis, has indicated this rapid and dramatic change is most likely the result of frameshift mutations in the tail of the sperm-specific histone H1. By establishing an evolutionary link between the chromatin-condensing histone H1s of somatic tissues and the chromatin-condensing proteins of the sperm, these results provide unequivocal support to the notion that vertebrate protamines evolved from histones.

Protamine-like proteins: evidence for a novel chromatin structure

Protamine-like (PL) proteins are DNA-condensing proteins that replace somatic-type histones during spermatogenesis. Their composition suggests a function intermediate to that of histones and protamines. Although these proteins have been well characterized at the chemical level in a large number of species, particularly in marine invertebrates, little is known about the specific structures arising from their interaction with DNA. Speculation concerning chromatin structure is complicated by the high degree of heterogeneity in both the number and size of these proteins, which can vary considerably even between closely related species. After careful examination and comparison of the protein sequences available to date for the PL proteins, we propose a model for a novel chromatin structure in the sperm of these organisms that is mediated by somatic-type histones, which are frequently found associated with these proteins. This structure supports the concept that the PL proteins may represent various evolutionary steps between a sperm-specific histone H1 precursor and true protamines. Potential post-translational modifications and the control of PL protein expression and deposition are also discussed.

Histones are the major chromosomal protein components of the sperm of the nemerteans Cerebratulus californiensis and Cerebratulus lacteus

We have characterized for the first time the sperm nuclear basic proteins (SNBP) from two species of nemerteans: Cerebratulus californiensis and Cerebratulus lacteus. Gel electrophoretic and chromatographic (RP-HPLC) analysis of the nuclear sperm extracts indicate that histones are the major protein components which are present. The linker histones (histones of the H1 family) exhibit a rather unusual composition and some of them contain cysteine. Several histone H1 isoforms are present, one of which has a composition similar to that of other H1 histones found in the sperm chromatin of other groups of lower invertebrates.