Infrared Thermography as a Powerful, Versatile, and Elegant Research Tool in Chemistry: Principles and Application to Catalysis and Adsorption

In this Review, diverse chemical problems that have been approached by means of infrared thermography (IRT) are covered in depth. Moreover, some novel steps forward in this field are made, described and discussed. Namely, the latest-generation IRT performance capabilities are harnessed in full; the initial phase of catalytic CO oxidation (called "fast ignition") is presented at the 0.01 s temporal resolution; at the same resolution, the thermal manifestation of the adsorption-desorption wave propagation after the gaseous reactant pulsed (0.6 s) wetting is exhibited. Furthermore, a radical difference in the thermal behavior of differently calcined γ-Al₂ O₃ supported Au catalysts, which underwent successive H₂ O and CO attacks, is demonstrated, and the generally accepted fact that the catalyst temperature reflects the catalytic activity is validated experimentally. It is shown that latest-generation IRT may serve as unique and highly informative research tool in chemistry.

Total Synthesis and Evaluation of the Actin-Binding Properties of Microcarpalide and a Focused Library of Analogues

A comparative investigation shows that hydroxylated 10-membered lactones modeled around the fungal metabolites microcarpalide (1) and pinolidoxin (2) are endowed with selective actin-binding properties. Although less potent than the marine natural product latrunculin A, which represents the standard in the field, nonenolides of this type are significantly less toxic and accommodate substantial structural editing. Most notable is the fact that even an intramolecular transesterification with formation of a hydroxylated butanolide skeleton does not annihilate their microfilament disrupting capacity. This finding calls for a reinvestigation of the biological profile of other fungal metabolites that embody a similar motif. Microcarpalide (1) serving as the calibration point for this comparative study was prepared by total synthesis based on ring-closing metathesis (RCM) as the key step. The chosen route favorably compares to previous approaches to this target and provides further support for the notion that the (E,Z)-configuration of a medium-sized cycloalkene can be controlled by proper choice of the catalyst as previously outlined by our group. 9-epi-Microcarpalide 26 and furanone 27 as representative examples of the "natural productlike" compounds investigated herein have been characterized by crystal structure analysis.

Unprecedented ROMP Activity of Low-Valent Rhenium–Nitrosyl Complexes: Mechanistic Evaluation of an Electrophilic Olefin Metathesis System

The reaction of [Re(H)(NO)2(PR3)2] complexes (1 a: R = PCy3; 1 b: R = PiPr3) with [H(OEt2)2][BAr(F)4] ([BAr(F)4] = tetrakis{3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl}borate) in benzene at room temperature gave the corresponding cations [Re(NO)2(PR3)2][BAr(F)4] (2 a and 2 b). The addition of phenyldiazomethane to benzene solutions of 2 a and 2 b afforded the moderately stable cationic rhenium(I)-benzylidene-dinitrosyl-bis(trialkyl)phosphine complexes 3 a and 3 b as [BAr(F)4]- salts in good yields. The complexes 2 a and 2 b catalyze the ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) of highly strained nonfunctionalized cyclic olefins to give polymers with relatively high polydispersity indices, high molecular weights and over 80 % Z configuration of the double bonds in the chain backbone. However, these complexes do not show metathesis activity with acyclic olefins. The benzylidene derivatives 3 a and 3 b are almost inactive in ROMP catalysis with norbornene and in olefin metathesis. NMR experiments gave the first hints of the initial formation of carbene complexes from [Re(NO)2(PR3)2][BAr(F)4] (2 a and 2 b) and norbornene. In a detailed mechanistic study ESI-MS/MS measurements provided further evidence that the carbene formation is initiated by a unique reaction sequence where the cleavage of the strained olefinic bond starts with phosphine migration forming a cyclic ylide-carbene complex, capable of undergoing metathesis with alternating rhenacyclobutane formation and cycloreversion reactions ("ylide" route). However, even at an early stage the ROMP propagation route is expected to merge into an "iminate" route by attack by the ylide function on one of the N(NO) atoms followed by phosphine oxide elimination. The formation of phosphine oxide was confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. The proposed mechanism is supported further by detailed DFT calculations.

High-Throughput Heterogeneous Catalytic Science

High-throughput experimentation in heterogeneous catalysis has recently experienced nearly exponential growth. Initial qualitative screening has evolved into quantitative high-throughput experimentation, characterization, and analysis. This allows high-throughput catalysis now to rise above simple screening to the level of fundamental understanding of reaction mechanisms, which will lead on a faster path to the Holy Grail of catalysis: rational catalyst design.

Total syntheses of the phytotoxic lactones herbarumin I and II and a synthesis-based solution of the pinolidoxin puzzle

A concise approach to a family of potent herbicidal 10-membered lactones is described on the basis of ring-closing metathesis (RCM) as the key step for the formation of the medium-sized ring. This includes the first total syntheses of herbarumin I (1) and II (2) as well as the synthesis of several possible macrolides of the pinolidoxin series. A comparison of their spectral and analytical data with those of the natural product allowed us to establish the stereostructure of pinolidoxin, a potent inhibitor of induced phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activity, as shown in 46. This finding, however, makes clear that a previous study dealing with the relative and absolute stereochemistry of this phytotoxic agent cannot be correct. An important aspect from the preparative point of view is the fact that the stereochemical outcome of the RCM reaction can be controlled by the choice of the catalyst. Thus, use of the ruthenium indenylidene complex 16 always leads to the corresponding (E)-alkenes, whereas the second generation catalyst 17 bearing an N-heterocyclic carbene ligand affords the isomeric (Z)-olefin with good selectivity. This course is deemed to reflect kinetic versus thermodynamic control of the cyclization reaction and therefore has potentially broader ramifications for the synthesis of medium-sized rings in general. A further noteworthy design feature is the fact that D-ribose is used as a convenient starting material for the preparation of both enantiomers of the key building block 14 by means of a "head-to-tail" interconversion strategy.

Asymmetric halogeno-bridged complexes: new reagents in organometallic synthesis and catalysis

Several methods to synthesize bimetallic complexes in which two different metal fragments are connected by halide bridges are described. Using simple starting materials a large pool of structurally defined bimetallic complexes with unique chemical reactivities can be prepared in short time. Applications in organometallic synthesis and homogeneous catalysis are discussed.

Indenylidene complexes of ruthenium: optimized synthesis, structure elucidation, and performance as catalysts for olefin metathesis--application to the synthesis of the ADE-ring system of nakadomarin A

An optimized and large scale adaptable synthesis of the ruthenium phenylindenylidene complex 3 is described which employs commercially available diphenyl propargyl alcohol 5 as a stable and convenient carbene source. Previous ambiguities as to the actual structure of the complex have been ruled out by a full analysis of its NMR spectra. A series of applications to ring closing metathesis (RCM) reactions shows that complex 3 is as good as or even superior to the classical Grubbs carbene 1 in terms of yield, reaction rate, and tolerance towards polar functional groups. Complex 3 turns out to be the catalyst of choice for the synthesis of the enantiopure core segment 77 of the marine alkaloid nakadomarin A 60 comprising the ADE rings of this target. Together with a series of other examples, this particular application illustrates that catalyst 3 is particularly well suited for the cyclization of medium-sized rings by RCM. Other key steps en route to nakadomarin A are a highly selective intramolecular Michael addition setting the quaternary center at the juncture of the A and D rings and a Takai-Nozaki olefination of aldehyde 73 with CH2I2, Ti(OiPr)4 and activated zinc dust.

Catalyst screening by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry: Hofmann carbenes for olefin metathesis

A new screening methodology, which combines in situ synthesis of complexes with an assay by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), is introduced in order to investigate highly active, cationic ruthenium-carbene catalysts in ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). The parameter space, whic is defined by systematic variation of four structural features of the catalyst [[R2P(CH2),PR2-kappa2-P]XRu=CHR']+ (the halogen ligand, the diphosphane bite-angle, the steric bulk of the phosphane, and the carbene ligand) and the variation of the metathesis substrate, is mapped out. Chloride as the anionic ligand X, a small chelating angle (n = 1), and reduced steric demand of the substituents R (Cy versus tBu) lead to the most reactive complex in acyclic olefin metathesis, whereas variation of the carbene moiety CHR' has only a modest influence. The overall rate in the gas phase depends on the pi-complex preequilibrium and metallacyclobutane formation, which was found to be the rate-determining step. In ROMP reactions backbiting has a profound influence on the overall rate. Moreover, we were able to establish that the reactivity trends determined in the gas phase parallel solution-phase reactivity. The overall rate in solution is also determined by a favorable dimer/ monomer preequilibrium providing the active catalyst by facile dissociation of dicationic, dinuclear catalyst precursors.

Comparative investigation of ruthenium-based metathesis catalysts bearing N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands

Exchange of one PCy3 unit of the classical Grubbs catalyst 1 by N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands leads to "second-generation" metathesis catalysts of superior reactivity and increased stability. Several complexes of this type have been prepared and fully characterized, six of them by X-ray crystallography. These include the unique chelate complexes 13 and 14 in which the NHC- and the Ru-CR entities are tethered to form a metallacycle. A particularly favorable design feature is that the reactivity of such catalysts can be easily adjusted by changing the electronic and steric properties of the NHC ligands. The catalytic activity also strongly depends on the solvent used; NMR investigations provide a tentative explanation of this effect. Applications of the "second-generation" catalysts to ring closing alkene metathesis and intramolecular enyne cycloisomerization reactions provide insights into their catalytic performance. From these comparative studies it is deduced that no single catalyst is optimal for different types of applications. The search for the most reactive catalyst for a specific transformation is facilitated by IR thermography allowing a rapid and semi-quantitative ranking among a given set of catalysts.