Biomimetic Catalysis of Catechol Cleavage by O2 in Organic Solvents − Role of Accessibility of O2 to FeIII in 2,11-Diaza[3,3](2,6)pyridinophane-Type Catalysts

Biological Inspirations: Iron Complexes Mimicking the Catechol Dioxygenases

Within the broad group of Fe non-heme oxidases, our attention was focused on the catechol 1,2- and 2,3-dioxygenases, which catalyze the oxidative cleavage of aromatic rings. A large group of Fe complexes with N/O ligands, ranging from N₃ to N₂O₂S, was developed to mimic the activity of these enzymes. The Fe complexes discussed in this work can mimic the intradiol/extradiol catechol dioxygenase reaction mechanism. Electronic effects of the substituents in the ligand affect the Lewis acidity of the Fe center, increasing the ability to activate dioxygen and enhancing the catalytic activity of the discussed biomimetic complexes. The ligand architecture, the geometric isomers of the complexes, and the substituent steric effects significantly affect the ability to bind the substrate in a monodentate and bidentate manner. The substrate binding mode determines the preferred mechanism and, consequently, the main conversion products. The preferred mechanism of action can also be affected by the solvents and their ability to form the stable complexes with the Fe center. The electrostatic interactions of micellar media, similar to SDS, also control the intradiol/extradiol mechanisms of the catechol conversion by discussed biomimetics.

Enhancement of the Antioxidant Activity and Neurotherapeutic Features through Pyridol Addition to Tetraazamacrocyclic Molecules

Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases are chronic conditions affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Oxidative stress is a consistent component described in the development of many neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, innovative strategies to develop drug candidates that overcome oxidative stress in the brain are needed. To target these challenges, a new, water-soluble 12-membered tetraaza macrocyclic pyridinophane L4 was designed and produced using a building-block approach. Potentiometric data show that the neutral species of L4 provides interesting zwitterionic behavior at physiological pH, akin to amino acids, and a nearly ideal isoelectric point of 7.3. The copper(II) complex of L4 was evaluated by X-ray diffraction and cyclic voltammetry to show the potential modes of antioxidant activity derived, which was also demonstrated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and coumarin carboxylic acid antioxidant assays. L4 was shown to have dramatically enhanced antioxidant activity and increased biological compatibility compared to parent molecules reported previously. L4 attenuated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced cell viability loss more efficiently than precursor molecules in the mouse hippocampal HT-22 cell model. L4 also showed potent (fM) level protection against H2O2 cell death in a BV2 microglial cell culture. Western blot studies indicated that L4 enhanced the cellular antioxidant defense capacity via Nrf2 signaling activation as well. Moreover, a low-cost analysis and high metabolic stability in phase I and II models were observed. These encouraging results show how the rational design of lead compounds is a suitable strategy for the development of treatments for neurodegenerative diseases where oxidative stress plays a substantial role.

Increase of Direct C-C Coupling Reaction Yield by Identifying Structural and Electronic Properties of High-Spin Iron Tetra-azamacrocyclic Complexes

Macrocyclic ligands have been explored extensively as scaffolds for transition metal catalysts for oxygen and hydrogen atom transfer reactions. C-C reactions facilitated using earth abundant metals bound to macrocyclic ligands have not been well-understood but could be a green alternative to replacing the current expensive and toxic precious metal systems most commonly used for these processes. Therefore, the yields from direct Suzuki-Miyaura C-C coupling of phenylboronic acid and pyrrole to produce 2-phenylpyrrole facilitated by eight high-spin iron complexes ([Fe3+L1(Cl)2]+, [Fe3+L4(Cl)2]+, [Fe2+L5(Cl)]+, [Fe2+L6(Cl)2], [Fe3+L7(Cl)2]+, [Fe3+L8(Cl)2]+, [Fe2+L9(Cl)]+, and [Fe2+L10(Cl)]+) were compared to identify the effect of structural and electronic properties on catalytic efficiency. Specifically, catalyst complexes were compared to evaluate the effect of five properties on catalyst reaction yields: (1) the coordination requirements of the catalyst, (2) redox half-potential of each complex, (3) topological constraint/rigidity, (4) N atom modification(s) increasing oxidative stability of the complex, and (5) geometric parameters. The need for two labile cis-coordination sites was confirmed based on a 42% decrease in catalytic reaction yield observed when complexes containing pentadentate ligands were used in place of complexes with tetradentate ligands. A strong correlation between iron(III/II) redox potential and catalytic reaction yields was also observed, with [Fe2+L6(Cl)2] providing the highest yield (81%, -405 mV). A Lorentzian fitting of redox potential versus yields predicts that these catalysts can undergo more fine-tuning to further increase yields. Interestingly, the remaining properties explored did not show a direct, strong relationship to catalytic reaction yields. Altogether, these results show that modifications to the ligand scaffold using fundamental concepts of inorganic coordination chemistry can be used to control the catalytic activity of macrocyclic iron complexes by controlling redox chemistry of the iron center. Furthermore, the data provide direction for the design of improved catalysts for this reaction and strategies to understand the impact of a ligand scaffold on catalytic activity of other reactions.

The role of spin states in the catalytic mechanism of the intra- and extradiol cleavage of catechols by O2

Iron-dependent enzymes and biomimetic iron complexes can catalyze the ring cleavage of very inert, aromatic compounds. The mechanisms of these transformations and the factors that lead either to extradiol cleavage or intradiol cleavage have not been fully understood. By using density functional theory we have elucidated the mechanism of the catalytic cycle for two biomimetic complexes, and explained the difference in the experimentally obtained products.

Improved synthesis of symmetrically & asymmetrically N-substituted pyridinophane derivatives

The N,N'-di(toluenesulfonyl)-2,11-diaza[3,3](2,6)pyridinophane (^TsN4) precursor was sought after as a starting point for the preparation of various symmetric and asymmetric pyridinophane-derived ligands. Various procedures to synthesize ^TsN4 had been published, but the crucial problem had been the purification of ^TsN4 from the larger 18- and 24-membered azamacrocycles. Most commonly, column chromatography or other laborious methods have been utilized for this separation, yet we have found an alternate selective dissolution method upon protonation which allows for multi-gram scale output of ^TsN4·HCl. This optimized synthesis of ^TsN4 also led to the development of symmetric ^RN4 derivatives as well as the asymmetric derivative N-(tosyl)-2,11-diaza[3,3](2,6)pyridinophane (^TsHN4). Using this ^TsHN4 precursor, different N-substituents can be added to create a library of asymmetric ^RR'N4 macrocyclic ligands. These asymmetric ^RR'N4 derivatives expand the utility of the ^RN4 framework in coordination chemistry and the ability to study the electronic, steric, and denticity effects of these pyridinophane ligands on the metal center.

Experimental and computational evidence for the mechanism of intradiol catechol dioxygenation by non-heme iron(III) complexes

Catechol intradiol dioxygenation is a unique reaction catalyzed by iron-dependent enzymes and non-heme iron(III) complexes. The mechanism by which these systems activate dioxygen in this important metabolic process remains controversial. Using a combination of kinetic measurements and computational modelling of multiple iron(III) catecholato complexes, we have elucidated the catechol cleavage mechanism and show that oxygen binds the iron center by partial dissociation of the substrate from the iron complex. The iron(III) superoxide complex that is formed subsequently attacks the carbon atom of the substrate by a rate-determining C-O bond formation step.

Iron(III) complexes with meridional ligands as functional models of intradiol-cleaving catechol dioxygenases

Six dichloroiron(III) complexes of 1,3-bis(2'-arylimino)isoindoline (BAIH) with various N-donor aryl groups have been characterized by spectroscopy (infrared, UV-vis), electrochemistry (cyclic voltammetry), microanalysis, and in two cases X-ray crystallography. The structurally characterized Fe(III)Cl(2)(L(n)) complexes (n = 3, L(3) = 1,3-bis(2'-thiazolylimino)isoindoline and n = 5, L(5) = 1,3-bis(4-methyl-2'-piridylimino)isoindoline) are five-coordinate, trigonal bipyramidal with the isoindoline ligands occupying the two axial and one equatorial positions meridionally. These compounds served as precursors for catechol dioxygenase models that were formed in solution upon addition of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (H(2)DBC) and excess triethylamine. These adducts react with dioxygen in N,N-dimethylformamide, and the analysis of the products by chromatography and mass spectrometry showed high intradiol over extradiol selectivity (the intradiol/extradiol product ratios varied between 46.5 and 6.5). Kinetic measurements were performed by following the change in the intensity of the catecholate to iron ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) band, the energy of which is influenced by the isoindolinate-ligand (827-960 nm). In combination with electrochemical investigations the kinetic studies revealed an inverse trend between reaction rates and oxidation potentials associated with the coordinated DBC(2-). On the basis of these results, a substrate activation mechanism is suggested for this system in which the geometry of the peroxide-bridged intermediate may be of key importance in regioselectivity.

cis-Dihydroxylation of alkenes with oxone catalyzed by iron complexes of a macrocyclic tetraaza ligand and reaction mechanism by ESI-MS spectrometry and DFT calculations

[Fe(III)(L-N(4)Me(2))Cl(2)](+) (1, L-N(4)Me(2) = N,N'-dimethyl-2,11-diaza[3.3](2,6)pyridinophane) is an active catalyst for cis-dihydroxylation of various types of alkenes with oxone at room temperature using limiting amounts of alkene substrates. In the presence of 0.7 or 3.5 mol % of 1, reactions of electron-rich alkenes, including cyclooctene, styrenes, and linear alkenes, with oxone (2 equiv) for 5 min resulted in up to >99% substrate conversion and afforded cis-diol products in up to 67% yield, with cis-diol/epoxide molar ratio of up to 16.8:1. For electron-deficient alkenes including α,β-unsaturated esters and α,β-unsaturated ketones, their reactions with oxone (2 equiv) catalyzed by 1 (3.5 mol %) for 5 min afforded cis-diols in up to 99% yield with up to >99% substrate conversion. A large-scale cis-dihydroxylation of methyl cinnamate (9.7 g) with oxone (1 equiv) afforded the cis-diol product (8.4 g) in 84% yield with 85% substrate conversion. After catalysis, the L-N(4)Me(2) ligand released due to demetalation can be reused to react with newly added Fe(ClO(4))(2)·4H(2)O to generate an iron catalyst in situ, which could be used to restart the catalytic alkene cis-dihydroxylation. Mechanistic studies by ESI-MS, isotope labeling studies, and DFT calculations on the 1-catalyzed cis-dihydroxylation of dimethyl fumarate with oxone reveal possible involvement of cis-HO-Fe(V)═O and/or cis-O═Fe(V)═O species in the reaction; the cis-dihydroxylation reactions involving cis-HO-Fe(V)═O and cis-O═Fe(V)═O species both proceed by a concerted but highly asynchronous mechanism, with that involving cis-HO-Fe(V)═O being more favorable due to a smaller activation barrier.

Synthesis, structure, spectra and reactivity of iron(III) complexes of imidazole and pyrazole containing ligands as functional models for catechol dioxygenases

A series of new 1 : 1 iron(iii) complexes of the type [Fe()Cl(3)], where is a tridentate 3N donor ligand, has been isolated and studied as functional models for catechol dioxygenases. The ligands (1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-ylmethyl)pyrid-2-ylmethyl-amine (), N,N-dimethyl-N'-(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-ylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine () and N-(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-ylmethyl)-N'-phenylethane-1,2-diamine () are linear while the ligands tris(1-pyrazolyl)methane (), tris(3,5-dimethyl-1-pyrazolyl)methane () and tris(3-iso-propylpyrazolyl)methane () are tripodal ones. All the complexes have been characterized by spectral and electrochemical methods. The X-ray crystal structure of the dinuclear catecholate adduct [Fe()(TCC)](2)O, where TCC(2-) is a tetrachlorocatecholate dianion, has been successfully determined. In this complex both the iron(iii) atoms are bridged by a mu-oxo group and each iron(iii) center possesses a distorted octahedral coordination geometry in which the ligand is facially coordinated and the remaining coordination sites are occupied by the TCC(2-) dianion. Spectral studies suggest that addition of a base like Et(3)N induces the mononuclear complex species [Fe()(TCC)Cl] to dimerize forming a mu-oxo-bridged complex. The spectral and electrochemical properties of the catecholate adducts of the complexes generated in situ reveal that a systematic variation in the ligand donor atom type significantly influences the Lewis acidity of the iron(iii) center and hence the interaction of the complexes with simple and substituted catechols. The 3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholate (DBC(2-)) adducts of the type [Fe()(DBC)Cl], where is a linear tridentate ligand (), undergo mainly oxidative intradiol cleavage of the catechol in the presence of dioxygen. Also, the extradiol-to-intradiol product selectivity (E : I) is enhanced upon removal of the coordinated chloride ion in these adducts to obtain [Fe()(DBC)(Sol)](+) and upon incorporating coordinated N-methylimidazolyl nitrogen in them. In contrast to the iron(iii) complexes of imidazole-based ligands, those of the tripodal pyrazole-based ligands yield major amounts of the oxidized product benzoquinone and small amounts of both intra- and extradiol products. One of the pyrazole arms coordinated in the equatorial plane of these sterically constrained complexes is substituted by a solvent molecule upon adduct formation with DBC(2-), which encourages molecular oxygen to attack this site leading to benzoquinone formation. The DBSQ/DBC(2-) redox potentials of both the imidazole- and pyrazole-based complexes fall in the narrow range of -0.186 to -0.214 V supporting this proposal.

Chelate Ring Size Variations and Their Effects on Coordination Chemistry and Catechol Dioxygenase Reactivity of Iron(III) Complexes

The catechol dioxygenase reactivity of iron(III) complexes using tripodal ligands was investigated. Increasing, as well as decreasing, chelate ring sizes in the highly active complex [Fe(tmpa)(dbc)]B(C6H5)4 (tmpa = tris[(2-pyridyl)methyl]amine; dbc = 3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholate dianion), using related ligands, only resulted in decreased reactivity of the investigated compounds. A detailed low-temperature stopped-flow investigation of the reaction of dioxygen with [Fe(tmpa)(dbc)]B(C6H5)4 was performed, and activation parameters of DeltaH++ = 23 +/- 1 kJ mol(-1) and DeltaS++ = -199 +/- 4 J mol(-1) K(-1) were obtained. Crystal structures of bromo-(tetrachlorocatecholato-O,O')(bis((2-pyridyl)methyl)-2-pyridylamine-N,N',N'')-iron(III), (mu-oxo)-bis(bromo)(bis((2-pyridyl)methyl)-2-pyridylamine-N,N',N' ',N''')-diiron(III), dichloro-((2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl)bis((2-pyridyl)methyl)amine-N,N',N' ',N''')-iron(III) and (tetrachlorocatecholato-O,O')((2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl)bis((2-pyridyl)methyl)amine-N,N',N' ',N''')-iron(III) are reported.

Functional models for catechol dioxygenases: Iron(III) complexes of cis-facially coordinating linear 3N ligands

A series of 1:1 iron(III) complexes of simple and sterically hindered tridentate 3N donor ligands have been synthesized and studied as functional models for catechol dioxygenases. All of them are of the type [FeLCl3], where L is bis(pyrid-2-yl-methyl)amine (L1), N,N-bis(benzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)amine (L2), N-methyl-N'-(pyrid-2-ylmethyl)ethylenediamine (L3), N,N-dimethyl-N'-(pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-ethylenediamine (L4) and N-phenyl-N'-(pyrid-2-ylmethyl)ethylenediamine (L5). They have been characterised by spectral and electrochemical methods. The X-ray crystal structure of the complex [Fe(L4)Cl3] has been successfully determined. The complex crystallizes in the triclinic space group P1 with a = 7.250(6), b = 8.284(3), c = 12.409(4) angstroms, alpha = 80.84(3) degrees, beta = 86.76(6) degrees, gamma = 72.09(7) degrees and Z = 2. It possesses a distorted octahedral geometry in which the L4 ligand is cis-facially coordinated to iron(III) and the chloride ions occupy the remaining coordination sites. The systematic variation in the ligand donor atom type significantly influences the Lewis acidity of the iron(III) center and hence the binding interaction of the complexes with simple and substituted catechols. The spectroscopic and electrochemical properties of the catecholate complexes generated in situ have been investigated. All the complexes catalyze mainly the oxidative intradiol cleavage of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (H2DBC) in the presence of dioxygen, which is unexpected of the cis-facial coordination of the ligands. The rate of intradiol catechol cleavage reaction depends upon the Lewis acidity of iron(III) center and steric demand and hydrogen-bonding functionalities of the ligands. Interestingly, the electron-sink property of N-phenyl substituent in [Fe(L5)Cl3] complex leads to enhancement in rate of cleavage. All these observations provide support to the substrate activation mechanism proposed for intradiol-cleaving enzymes.

A linear correlation between energy of LMCT band and oxygenation reaction rate of a series of catecholatoiron(III) complexes: initial oxygen binding during intradiol catechol oxygenation

The oxygen reactivity of catecholatoiron(III) complexes has been examined using a series of catecholate ligands as the substrate. All the complexes examined here, [Fe(III)(TPA)(R-Cat)]BPh(4) (1-9) (TPA: tris(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)amine; R-Cat: substituted catecholate ligand, R=3,5-(t)Bu(2) (1), 3,6-(t)Bu2 (2), 3,5-Me2 (3), 3,6-Me2 (4), 4-(t)Bu (5), 4-Me (6), H (7), 4-Cl (8) and 3-Cl (9)), exclusively afforded the intradiol cleaving products of the catecholate ligands upon exposure to O2. It was revealed that 1-7 can be categorized into two classes based on their electrochemical properties; i.e., the complexes having the dialkyl-substituted (group A) and the mono- or non-substituted (group B) catecholate ligands. In spite of their classification, these two groups show a linear correlation between the logarithm of the reaction rate constant with O2 and the energy of the catecholate-to-iron(III) LMCT band, although 2 shows a large negative deviation from the correlation line. Based on this LMCT-energy dependent reactivity of 1 and 3-9 as well as the very low reactivity of 2, we have discussed on the mechanisms of the reaction of [Fe(III)(TPA)(R-Cat)]BPh4 with O2.