Interventions for HIV-associated nephropathy

Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Kidney Failure in People with HIV-Infection in Africa: Current Status and a Call to Action

There is an increasing global burden of diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), coupled with a high burden of people with HIV (PWH). Due to an increased lifespan on ART, PWH are now at risk of developing non-communicable diseases, including DM. Africa has the greatest burden of HIV infection and will experience the greatest increase in prevalence of DM over the next two decades. In addition, there is a rising number of people with CKD and progression to kidney failure. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the early identification and management of all 3 diseases to prevent disease progression and complications. This is particularly important in Africa for people with CKD where there is restricted or no access to dialysis and/or transplantation. This review focuses on the epidemiology and pathophysiology of the interaction between HIV infection and DM and the impact that these diseases have on the development and progression of CKD. Finally, it also aims to review the data on the management, which stems from the growing burden of all three diseases.

HIV-associated nephropathy in children: challenges in a resource-limited setting

HIV infection remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in children living in resource-limited settings. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) recently recommended antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation upon diagnosis regardless of the number of CD4, ART access remains limited, especially in children living in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). HIV-infected children who do not receive appropriate ART are at increased risk of developing HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN). Although due to genetic susceptibility, SSA is recognized to be the epicenter of HIVAN, limited information is available regarding the burden of HIVAN in children living in Africa. The present review discusses the information available to date on the prevalence, pathogenesis, risk factors, diagnosis, and management of HIVAN in children, focusing on related challenges in a resource-limited setting.

HIV-Associated Nephropathy in 2022

Background

HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) is a renal parenchymal disease that occurs exclusively in people living with HIV. It is a serious kidney condition that may possibly lead to end-stage kidney disease, particularly in the HIV-1 seropositive patients.

Summary

The African-American population has increased susceptibility to this comorbidity due to a strong association found in the APOL1 gene, specifically two missense mutations in the G1 allele and a frameshift deletion in the G2 allele, although a "second-hit" event is postulated to have a role in the development of HIVAN. HIVAN presents with proteinuria, particularly in the nephrotic range, as with other kidney diseases. The diagnosis requires biopsy and typically presents with collapsing subtype focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and microcyst formation in the tubulointerstitial region. Gaps still exist in the definitive treatment of HIVAN - concurrent use of antiretroviral therapy and adjunctive management with like renal-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors, steroids, or renal replacement therapy showed benefits.

Key Message

This study reviews the current understanding of HIVAN including its epidemiology, mechanism of disease, related genetic factors, clinical profile, and pathophysiologic effects of management options for patients.

The effects of add-on corticosteroids on renal outcomes in patients with biopsy proven HIV associated nephropathy: a single centre study from South Africa

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to assess, the efficacy and safety of add-on corticosteroids to antiretroviral therapy [ART] in patients with biopsy proven HIV associated nephropathy.

METHODS

All included patients had histological evidence of either collapsing or non-collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) or podocyte and/or parietal cell hypertrophy or hyperplasia. All patients had evidence of tubulointerstitial inflammation with microcysts. Patients were randomized to ART with the addition of 1 mg/kg of corticosteroids [ART+C] or remained in the group [ART Alone] and followed for 2 years. A repeat biopsy was performed at 6 months.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients were randomized to [ART+C] and 17 to [ART Alone]. The baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was significantly lower in the [ART+C] vs. [ART Alone] group [35mls/min/1.73m2 vs. 47 mls/min/1.73m2, p = 0.015]. The [ART+C] cohort had a statistically significant improvement in median (eGFR) from baseline to last follow up compared with [ART Alone] i.e. [Δ = 25mls/min (IQR: 15;51) vs 9 mls/min (IQR: 0-24), p = 0.008]. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups when proteinuria and histology were analyzed. There were 8 deaths during the trial period, 7 from [ART+C] (Log rank p = 0.071).

CONCLUSIONS

In the [ART+C] cohort there was a significant improvement in eGFR over 2-years with increased mortality. Routine corticosteroid use cannot currently be recommended. Further investigation to define which subgroup of this cohort would safely benefit from the positive effects is required.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN study ID ( 56112439 ] was retrospectively registered on the 5 September 2018.

Pharmacotherapy and treatment options for HIV-associated nephropathy

INTRODUCTION

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a worldwide disease with significant mortality and morbidity. There are a multitude of HIV-related kidney diseases including HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) most prominently. The risk of developing HIVAN increases with decreasing CD4 count, higher viral load, and based on genetic factors. The mortality rate for those with HIVAN-end stage renal disease (ESRD) remains 2.5-3 times higher than ESRD patients without HIVAN.

AREAS COVERED

The epidemiology of HIVAN, particularly risk assessment, will be explored in this review. Further, the pathogenesis of HIVAN, from viral-specific renal expression to the role of genetics as well as characteristic renal pathology will be described. Diagnosis and management of HIVAN will be addressed, with an emphasis on various treatment strategies including medication, dialysis, and kidney transplantation.

EXPERT OPINION

HIVAN is associated with a high risk for progression to ESRD and increased mortality. The backbone of HIVAN therapy remains combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART), while adjunctive therapies including RAAS blockade and prednisone, should be considered. In those who progress to ESRD, dialysis remains the mainstay of management, though increasing evidence has demonstrated that kidney transplantation can be effective in those with controlled HIV disease.