Blood transfusions for anaemia in patients with advanced cancer

Red Blood Cell Transfusions in Patients with Advanced Cancer Receiving Home Palliative Care

Background: Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion is the standard treatment for anemia in advanced cancer. Nevertheless, guidelines for managing this condition are still not exhaustive. Objective: To investigate frequency, timing, and clinical characteristics associated with RBC transfusions in patients with advanced cancer assisted by at-home oncological care service and to evaluate the association between parameters at the entry and the possibility of receiving RBC transfusions during homecare. Design: Retrospective observational study without medication. Setting/Subjects: Patients with advanced cancer entered in homecare during 2021 living in Bologna (Italy). Measurements: Gender, tumor primary site, oncological therapy, and symptoms at the entry were considered as possible factors in a binary logistic regression for the possibility of receiving at least one RBC transfusion during assistance. Data about transfusions were analyzed, and the transfusion history for each patient from the entry to death was traced. Results: Among the 1108 patients admitted, 179 (16.2%) were given at least one RBC transfusion during homecare. Genitourinary, hematological malignancies, and being still in therapy for advanced cancer are associated with a higher probability of receiving RBC transfusion during assistance (p = 0.017, p < 0.001, and p = 0.032, respectively). Half of the patients (52%) underwent RBC transfusions less than a month before death. Duration of the assistance was correlated with the period from last transfusion to death (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Hematological and genitourinary cancer and being in simultaneous care at the entry were associated with transfusion. Although the appropriateness of this treatment remains to be defined in this population, transfused patients frequently received "late in life" transfusions.

Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Challenges in Delivering End-of-Life Care

Patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) have a complex disease trajectory characterized by high symptom and psychosocial burden, a high rate of hospitalization and intensive care unit admission at the end-of-life (EOL), and frequent use of chemotherapy near the EOL. In addition, palliative and hospice care are underutilized in patients with AML despite their poor prognosis. Clinicians providing care to patients with end-stage AML frequently encounter multiple challenges, particularly surrounding the frequent administration of blood products near the EOL. We present a case of a patient with end-stage AML whose desire for transfusions causes significant patient and caregiver distress at the EOL. Balancing patient autonomy with the potentially inappropriate use of blood transfusions at the EOL and having good communication and collaboration among healthcare teams are important considerations when delivering optimal EOL care to patients with AML.

Care of the adult cancer patient at the end of life: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines

•This ESMO Clinical Practice Guideline provides key recommendations for end-of-life care for patients with advanced cancer. •It details care that is focused on comfort, quality of life and approaching death of patients with advanced cancer. •All recommendations were compiled by a multidisciplinary group of experts. •Recommendations are based on available scientific data and the authors’ collective expert opinion.

Investigation and management of iron deficiency anaemia in a specialist palliative care setting and the role of intravenous iron: a descriptive analysis of hospice data

Background

Anaemia is common in hospice populations and associated with significant symptom burden. Guidelines recommend investigating for and treating iron deficiency (ID), but there is little evidence of this practice in palliative care populations. This report describes the results of investigations for and subsequent management of ID in a UK hospice.

Methods

This is a descriptive study of routine clinical data. Laboratory and clinical records were reviewed retrospectively for 12 months following the implementation, in August 2018, of routine investigation for ID amongst patients with clinically relevant anaemia in whom treatment would be considered. Absolute (AID) and functional iron deficiency (FID) were diagnosed using established definitions and treatments recorded.

Results

Iron status was evaluated in 112 cases, representing 25/110 (22.7%) of those with mild, 46/76 (60.5%) moderate and 41/54 (75.9%) severe anaemia. Twenty-eight (25%) were defined as having AID, 48 (42.8%) FID and 36 (32%) no ID. There was a significant difference between groups in symptoms triggering haemoglobin check and diagnosis, with a higher proportion of patients with classic symptoms of anaemia and gastrointestinal malignancy in those with AID. Intravenous iron was given on 12 occasions in the hospice with no major adverse events. Subjective symptom benefit in 7 cases and a statistically significant increase in overall mean haemoglobin were observed.

Conclusions

This report describes the outcome of investigations for iron deficiency in patients with clinically significant anaemia in a UK hospice. Results indicate iron deficiency is common and can be safely treated with intravenous iron replacement, within current guidelines, in a hospice setting. Further research should define the optimum use of this approach in palliative care patients.

Interventions for fatigue in inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an umbrella term used to describe a group of chronic, progressive inflammatory disorders of the digestive tract. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are the two main types. Fatigue is a common, debilitating and burdensome symptom experienced by individuals with IBD. The subjective, complex nature of fatigue can often hamper its management. The efficacy and safety of pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatments for fatigue in IBD is not yet established through systematic review of studies.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for managing fatigue in IBD compared to no treatment, placebo or active comparator.

SEARCH METHODS

A systematic search of the databases Embase, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, PsycINFO was undertaken from inception to July 2018. A top-up search was run in October 2019. We also searched the Cochrane IBD Group Specialized Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ongoing trials and research registers, conference abstracts and reference lists for potentially eligible studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions in children or adults with IBD, where fatigue was assessed as a primary or secondary outcome using a generic or disease-specific fatigue measure, a subscale of a larger quality of life scale or as a single-item measure, were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently screened search results and four authors extracted and assessed bias independently using the Cochrane 'Risk of bias' tool. The primary outcome was fatigue and the secondary outcomes included quality of life, adverse events (AEs), serious AEs and withdrawal due to AEs. Standard methodological procedures were used.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 14 studies (3741 participants): nine trials of pharmacological interventions and five trials of non-pharmacological interventions. Thirty ongoing studies were identified, and five studies are awaiting classification. Data on fatigue were available from nine trials (1344 participants). In only four trials was managing fatigue the primary intention of the intervention (electroacupuncture, physical activity advice, cognitive behavioural therapy and solution-focused therapy). Electroacupuncture Fatigue was measured with Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy - Fatigue (FACIT-F) (scores range from 0 to 52). The FACIT-F score at week eight was 8.00 points higher (better) in participants receiving electroacupuncture compared with no treatment (mean difference (MD) 8.00, 95% CI 6.45 to 9.55; 1 RCT; 27 participants; low-certainty evidence). Results at week 16 could not be calculated. FACIT-F scores were also higher with electroacupuncture compared to sham electroacupuncture at week eight (MD 5.10, 95% CI 3.49 to 6.71; 1 RCT; 30 participants; low-certainty evidence) but not at week 16 (MD 2.60, 95% CI 0.74 to 4.46; 1 RCT; 30 participants; low-certainty evidence). No adverse events were reported, except for one adverse event in the sham electroacupuncture group. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and solution-focused therapy Compared with a fatigue information leaflet, the effects of CBT on fatigue are very uncertain (Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Fatigue (IBD-F) section I: MD -2.16, 95% CI -6.13 to 1.81; IBD-F section II: MD -21.62, 95% CI -45.02 to 1.78; 1 RCT, 18 participants, very low-certainty evidence). The efficacy of solution-focused therapy on fatigue is also very uncertain, because standard summary data were not reported (1 RCT, 98 participants). Physical activity advice One 2 x 2 factorial trial (45 participants) found physical activity advice may reduce fatigue but the evidence is very uncertain. At week 12, compared to a control group receiving no physical activity advice plus omega 3 capsules, FACIT-F scores were higher (better) in the physical activity advice plus omega 3 group (FACIT-F MD 6.40, 95% CI -1.80 to 14.60, very low-certainty evidence) and the physical activity advice plus placebo group (FACIT-F MD 9.00, 95% CI 1.64 to 16.36, very low-certainty evidence). Adverse events were predominantly gastrointestinal and similar across physical activity groups, although more adverse events were reported in the no physical activity advice plus omega 3 group. Pharmacological interventions Compared with placebo, adalimumab 40 mg, administered every other week ('eow') (only for those known to respond to adalimumab induction therapy), may reduce fatigue in patients with moderately-to-severely active Crohn's disease, but the evidence is very uncertain (FACIT-F MD 4.30, 95% CI 1.75 to 6.85; very low-certainty evidence). The adalimumab 40 mg eow group was less likely to experience serious adverse events (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.96; 521 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) and withdrawal due to adverse events (OR 0.48, 95%CI 0.26 to 0.87; 521 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Ferric maltol may result in a slight increase in fatigue, with better SF-36 vitality scores reported in the placebo group compared to the treatment group following 12 weeks of treatment (MD -9.31, 95% CI -17.15 to -1.47; 118 participants; low-certainty evidence). There may be little or no difference in adverse events (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.26 to 1.18; 120 participants; low-certainty evidence) AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The effects of interventions for the management of fatigue in IBD are uncertain. No firm conclusions regarding the efficacy and safety of interventions can be drawn. Further high-quality studies, with a larger number of participants, are required to assess the potential benefits and harms of therapies. Future studies should assess interventions specifically designed for fatigue management, targeted at selected IBD populations, and measure fatigue as the primary outcome.

Barriers to the composition and implementation of advance directives in oncology: a literature review

The advance directive (AD) is an important resource in oncology and all areas of medicine directly involved in the care of palliative patients. It provides people with the right to have their living wills honoured when they cannot respond by themselves. Despite their importance, ADs are still underused in most countries due to multiple factors. The objective of this review is to better categorise the barriers and difficulties that could impair the composition and implementation of ADs, allowing direct efforts against these obstacles. After the literature review, we believe that there would be five steps in the trajectory of an AD (discussion, composition, registration, access and implementation) and that all those steps can be affected by factors involving the health systems and professionals, the patient themselves and relatives or caregivers.

Transfusion as a Palliative Strategy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The palliative care population is a complex and heterogeneous one. While transfusion therapy is a readily available intervention for many patients, inadequate knowledge for accurately identifying which patient subsets at end-of-life will benefit from a transfusion, along with an unclear understanding of the magnitude of attendant risks of transfusion in those receiving palliative care, complicates the risk-benefit assessment of this therapy. In this brief review, the current literature surrounding transfusion of red cells and platelets in the palliative care patient population will be reviewed and recommendations provided.

RECENT FINDINGS

Benefits of transfusion therapy include subjective relief of fatigue and dyspnea, and improved sense of wellness, amongst other findings. However, these responses are not durable and there are currently no validated, objective metrics that correlate with symptomatic improvements. It is clear that transfusion-associated adverse reactions are underestimated in those receiving palliative care, with reaction rates similar to the general patient population. Additionally, based on the high mortality rates reported soon after transfusion, the impact of these blood components must be considered as an exacerbating or causative factor of mortality when evaluating declining condition or death. Hematinics are rarely assessed in anemic palliative care patients or, when measured, are often not corrected. The decision to transfuse palliative care patients is multifactorial, and benefits, risks, patient wishes, blood component inventories, and alternatives to transfusion should all be considered. There are many unknowns regarding transfusion in palliative care. Critical next steps for optimizing blood component therapy in this population include high-quality trials that help to identify validated measures of objective functional changes that parallel patient-reported outcomes and subsets of patients receiving end-of-life care that will most likely be positively impacted by transfusion therapy.

Does packed red cell transfusion provide symptomatic benefits to cancer palliative patients?: a longitudinal study from a single private oncology center in Nepal

Background

Palliative patients generally present with symptoms of dyspnea, easy fatigability, lethargy and feeling of being unwell which can broadly be attributed to one root cause: cancer-related anemia. So, packed red cell transfusion is often carried out aiming to improve patients’ functional status. Different cut off hemoglobin values have been suggested, with Hb < 9 g/dL the most commonly accepted. The present study aims at evaluating and comparing the benefits in subjective symptoms of fatigue and breathlessness among transfused and non-transfused palliative patients on Day 0 and Day 7.

Methods

Hemoglobin values, anemia related subjective symptoms of fatigue and breathlessness were recorded from 122 patients. The patients were re-evaluated on day-7 post-transfusion. The pre and post-transfusion symptomatic benefit was compared in both transfused and non-transfused palliative care patients.

Results

The currently practiced hemoglobin trigger for packed red cell transfusion is 10 g/dL. The units of packed red cell to be transfused was decided according to the hemoglobin values targeting the rise to > 10 g/dL. A mean 1.36 units were transfused. Statistically significant improvement was observed in patient reported symptoms of fatigue and breathlessness among both transfused and non-transfused palliative patients.

Conclusion

Anemic cancer palliative patients were found to benefit following packed red cell transfusion, suggesting a favorable association between the transfusion and patient-reported fatigue and dyspnea.

Therapeutic impact of red blood cell transfusion on anemic outpatients: the RETRO study

BACKGROUND

Patients with cancer or other diagnoses associated with chronic anemia often receive red blood cell (RBC) transfusion as outpatients, but the effect of transfusion on functional status is not well demonstrated.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

To estimate the effect of transfusion on functional status and quality of life, we measured 6-minute walk test distance and fatigue- and dyspnea-related quality-of-life scores before and 1 week after RBC transfusion in 208 outpatients age ≥50 with at least one benign or malignant hematology/oncology diagnosis. To account for potential confounding effects of cancer treatment, patients were classified into two groups based on cancer treatment within 4 weeks of the study transfusion. Minimum clinically important improvements over baseline were 20 meters in walk test distance, 3 points in fatigue score, and 2 points in dyspnea score.

RESULTS

The median improvement in unadjusted walk test distance was 20 meters overall and 30 meters in patients not receiving recent cancer treatment. Fatigue scores improved overall by a median of 3 points and by 4 points in patients without cancer treatment. There was no clinically important change in dyspnea scores. In multiple linear regression analysis, patients who maintained hemoglobin (Hb) levels of 8 g/dL or greater at 1 week posttransfusion, who had not received recent cancer treatment, and who did not require hospitalization during the study showed clinically important increases in mean walk test distance.

CONCLUSIONS

Red blood cell transfusion is associated with a modest, but clinically important improvement in walk test distance and fatigue score outcomes in adult hematology/oncology outpatients.

National comparative audit of red blood cell transfusion practice in hospices: Recommendations for palliative care practice

Background:

Red blood cell transfusions are commonly used in palliative care to treat anaemia or symptoms caused by anaemia. In patients with advanced disease, there is little evidence of benefit to guide treatment decisions in the face of increased risk of harms.

Aim:

To determine national transfusion practice in hospices and compare this against National Institute for Health and Care Excellence and British Society of Haematology guidelines to develop recommendations to improve practice.

Design and Setting:

Prospective data collection on red blood cell transfusion practice in UK adult hospices over a 3-month census period.

Results:

A total of 121/210 (58%) hospices participated. A total of 465 transfusion episodes occurred in 83 hospices. Patients had a mean age of 71 years, and 96% had cancer. Mean pre-transfusion haemoglobin was 75 g/L (standard deviation = 11.15). Anaemia of chronic disease was the largest cause of anaemia (176; 38%); potentially amenable to alternative treatments. Haematinics were not checked in 70% of patients. Alternative treatments such as B12, folate and iron were rarely used. Despite transfusion-associated circulatory overload risk, 85% of patients were not weighed, and 84% had two or more units transfused. Only 83 (18%) patients had an improvement maintained at 30 days; 142 (31%) had <14 day improvement, and 50 (11%) had no improvement. A total of 150 patients (32%) were dead at 30 days.

Conclusion:

More rigorous investigation of anaemia, increased use of alternative therapies and more restrictive approach to red cell transfusions are recommended. Clinicians should discuss the limited benefit versus potentially higher risks with patients in hospice services to inform treatment decisions.

Pathogenesis and Treatment Options of Cancer Related Anemia: Perspective for a Targeted Mechanism-Based Approach

Cancer-related anemia (CRA) is a common sign occurring in more than 30% of cancer patients at diagnosis before the initiation of antineoplastic therapy. CRA has a relevant influence on survival, disease progression, treatment efficacy, and the patients' quality of life. It is more often detected in patients with advanced stage disease, where it represents a specific symptom of the neoplastic disease, as a consequence of chronic inflammation. In fact, CRA is characterized by biological and hematologic features that resemble those described in anemia associated to chronic inflammatory disease. Proinflammatory cytokine, mainly IL-6, which are released by both tumor and immune cells, play a pivotal action in CRA etiopathogenesis: they promote alterations in erythroid progenitor proliferation, erythropoietin (EPO) production, survival of circulating erythrocytes, iron balance, redox status, and energy metabolism, all of which can lead to anemia. The discovery of hepcidin allowed a greater knowledge of the relationships between immune cells, iron metabolism, and anemia in chronic inflammatory diseases. Additionally, chronic inflammation influences a compromised nutritional status, which in turn might induce or contribute to CRA. In the present review we examine the multifactorial pathogenesis of CRA discussing the main and novel mechanisms by which immune, nutritional, and metabolic components affect its onset and severity. Moreover, we analyze the status of the art and the perspective for the treatment of CRA. Notably, despite the high incidence and clinical relevance of CRA, controlled clinical studies testing the most appropriate treatment for CRA are scarce, and its management in clinical practice remains challenging. The present review may be useful to indicate the development of an effective approach based on a detailed assessment of all factors potentially involved in the pathogenesis of CRA. This mechanism-based approach is essential for clinicians to plan a safe, targeted, and successful therapy, thereby promoting a relevant amelioration of patients' quality of life.

Impact of ferric carboxymaltose on the evolution of hemoglobin and ECOG performance status in iron-deficient patients with solid tumors: a 3-month follow-up retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Anemia is often associated with a lower quality of life and less tolerance to treatments in cancer patients.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this retrospective study were to assess the biological (hemoglobin, Hb) and clinical (ECOG index) impact of ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) and to identify predictive factors of response in cancer patients with iron deficiency.

METHODS

We included 133 patients with solid tumors who received at least one dose of FCM in 2015.

RESULTS

At baseline, most patients had metastatic cancer (70%), were undergoing chemotherapy (82%), suffered from anemia (90%), and 72% had an ECOG 0-1 index. Mean Hb level was statistically higher at M1 (108.3 g/L ± 13.9), M2 (110.3 g/L ± 16.1), and M3 (111.7 g/L ± 12.6) than M0 (99.2 g/L ± 13.9). Mean ECOG score increased significantly at M1 (1.31 ± 0.80) and M2 (1.31 ± 0.87) compared to M0 (1.13 ± 0.80). Variations of ECOG index between M0 and M1 were independent of levels of Hb and ferritin at inclusion and pretreatment use of transfusion and ESAs. Increase of Hb level was higher in patients with Hb < 100 g/L, ferritinemia < 800 ng/ml, or transfused before inclusion. In multivariate analysis, an ECOG index of 0 was the only predictive factor of an increase of ECOG index and Hb level < 100 g/L and ferritinemia < 800 ng/ml were predictive of an increase in Hb.

CONCLUSION

Even though there was no improvement in ECOG index, this study did identify an increase of Hb for patients receiving FCM, indicating its potential benefit in iron-deficient cancer patients.

Measuring the impact of ambulatory red blood cell transfusion on home functional status: study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial

Background

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion is frequently employed in both ambulatory and hospital environments with the aim of improving patient functional status. In the ambulatory setting, this practice is particularly common in patients with malignancy due to anemia associated with their cancer therapy. Increasingly, the efficacy of this US$10.5 billion per year practice has been called into question. While it is often standard of care for patients with chemotherapy-induced anemia to receive ambulatory RBC transfusions, it is unclear to what extent such transfusions affect home functional status. It is also unclear whether or not changes in functional status in this population can be objectively quantified using wearable activity monitors. We propose to directly measure the impact of outpatient RBC transfusions on at-home functional status by recording several physiological parameters and quantifiable physical activity metrics, e.g., daily energy expenditure and daily total step count, using the ActiGraph wGT3X-BT. This device is an accelerometer-based wearable activity monitor similar in size to a small watch and is worn at the waist. Study participants will wear the device during the course of their daily activities giving us quantifiable insight into activity levels in the home environment.

Methods/design

This will be a randomized crossover pilot clinical trial with a participant study duration of 28 days. The crossover nature allows each patient to serve as their own control. Briefly, patients presenting at a tertiary medical center’s Ambulatory Infusion Center (AIC) will be randomized to either: (1) receive an RBC transfusion as scheduled (transfusion) or (2) abstain from the scheduled transfusion (no transfusion). After an appropriate washout period, participants will crossover from the transfusion arm to the no-transfusion arm or vice versa. Activity levels will be recorded continuously throughout the study using an accelerometry monitor. In addition to device data, functional status and health outcomes will be collected via a weekly telephone interview. The primary outcome measure will be daily energy expenditure. Performance metrics, such as step count changes, will also be evaluated. Additional secondary outcome measures will include daily sedentary time and Patient-reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global 10 Survey scores.

Discussion

This trial will provide important information on the feasibility and utility of using accelerometry monitors to directly assess the impact of RBC transfusion on patients’ functional status. The results of the study will inform the merit and methods of a more definitive future trial evaluating the impact of ambulatory RBC transfusions in the target population.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02835937. Registered on 15 July 2016.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-017-1873-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.