Structural characterization and intramolecular aliphatic C-H oxidation ability of M(III)(mu-O)2M(III) complexes of Ni and Co with the hydrotris-(3,5-dialkyl-4-X-pyrazolyl)borate ligands TpMe2,X (X = Me, H, Br) and TpiPr2

Combining Donor Strength and Oxidative Stability in Scorpionates: A Strongly Donating Fluorinated Mesoionic Tris(imidazol-5-ylidene)borate Ligand

Strongly donating scorpionate ligands support the study of high-valent transition metal chemistry; however, their use is frequently limited by oxidative degradation. To address this concern, we report the synthesis of a tris(imidazol-5-ylidene)borate ligand featuring trifluoromethyl groups surrounding its coordination pocket. This ligand represents the first example of a chelating poly(imidazol-5-ylidene) mesoionic carbene ligand, a scaffold that is expected to be extremely donating. The {NiNO}10 complex of this ligand, as well as that of a previously reported strongly donating tris(imidazol-2-ylidene)borate, has been synthesized and characterized. This new ligand's strong donor properties, as measured by the υNO of its {NiNO}10 complex and natural bonding orbital second-order perturbative energy analysis, are at par with those of the well-studied alkyl-substituted tris(imidazol-2-ylidene)borates, which are known to effectively stabilize high-valent intermediates. The good donor properties of this ligand, despite the electron-withdrawing trifluoromethyl substituents, arise from the strongly donating imidazol-5-ylidene mesoionic carbene arms. These donor properties, when combined with the robustness of trifluoromethyl groups toward oxidative decomposition, suggest this ligand scaffold will be a useful platform in the study of oxidizing high-valent transition-metal species.

Selective oxygenation of C-H and CC bonds with H2O2 by high-spin cobalt(II)-carboxylate complexes

Four cobalt(II)-carboxylate complexes [(6-Me₃-TPA)Co^II(benzoate)](BPh₄) (1), [(6-Me₃-TPA)Co^II(benzilate)](ClO₄) (2), [(6-Me₃-TPA)Co^II(mandelate)](BPh₄) (3), and [(6-Me₃-TPA)Co^II(MPA)](BPh₄) (4) (HMPA = 2-methoxy-2-phenylacetic acid) of the 6-Me₃-TPA (tris((6-methylpyridin-2-yl)methyl)amine) ligand were isolated to investigate their ability in H₂O₂-dependent selective oxygenation of C-H and CC bonds. All six-coordinate complexes contain a high-spin cobalt(II) center. While the cobalt(II) complexes are inert toward dioxygen, each of these complexes reacts readily with hydrogen peroxide to form a diamagnetic cobalt(III) species, which decays with time leading to the oxidation of the methyl groups on the pyridine rings of the supporting ligand. Intramolecular ligand oxidation by the cobalt-based oxidant is partially inhibited in the presence of external substrates, and the substrates are converted to their corresponding oxidized products. Kinetic studies and labelling experiments indicate the involvement of a metal-based oxidant in affecting the chemo- and stereo-selective catalytic oxygenation of aliphatic C-H bonds and epoxidation of alkenes. An electrophilic cobalt-oxygen species that exhibits a kinetic isotope effect (KIE) value of 5.3 in toluene oxidation by 1 is proposed as the active oxidant. Among the complexes, the cobalt(II)-benzoate (1) and cobalt(II)-MPA (4) complexes display better catalytic activity compared to their α-hydroxy analogues (2 and 3). Catalytic studies with the cobalt(II)-acetonitrile complex [(6-Me₃-TPA)Co^II(CH₃CN)₂](ClO₄)₂ (5) in the presence and absence of externally added benzoate support the role of the carboxylate co-ligand in oxidation reactions. The proposed catalytic reaction involves a carboxylate-bridged dicobalt complex in the activation of H₂O₂ followed by the oxidation of substrates by a metal-based oxidant.

Enzyme-Like Hydroxylation of Aliphatic C-H Bonds From an Isolable Co-Oxo Complex

The selective hydroxylation of aliphatic C-H bonds remains a challenging but broadly useful transformation. Nature has evolved systems that excel at this reaction, exemplified by cytochrome P450 enzymes, which use an iron-oxo intermediate to activate aliphatic C-H bonds with k₁ > 1400 s^-1 at 4 °C. Many synthetic catalysts have been inspired by these enzymes and are similarly proposed to use transition metal-oxo intermediates. However, most examples of well-characterized transition metal-oxo species are not capable of reacting with strong, aliphatic C-H bonds, resulting in a lack of understanding of what factors facilitate this reactivity. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a new terminal Co^III-oxo complex, PhB(^AdIm)₃Co^IIIO. Upon oxidation, a transient Co^IV-oxo intermediate is generated that is capable of hydroxylating aliphatic C-H bonds with an extrapolated k₁ for C-H activation >130 s^-1 at 4 °C, comparable to values observed in cytochrome P450 enzymes. Experimental thermodynamic values and DFT analysis demonstrate that, although the initial C-H activation step in this reaction is endergonic, the overall reaction is driven by an extremely exergonic radical rebound step, similar to what has been proposed in cytochrome P450 enzymes. The rapid C-H hydroxylation reactivity displayed in this well-defined system provides insight into how hydroxylation is accomplished by biological systems and similarly potent synthetic oxidants.

Intramolecular Hydrogen-Bond Interactions Tune Reactivity in Biomimetic Bis(μ-hydroxo)dicobalt Complexes

Active site hydrogen-bond (H-bond) networks represent a key component by which metalloenzymes control the formation and deployment of high-valent transition metal-oxo intermediates. We report a series of dinuclear cobalt complexes that serve as structural models for the nonheme diiron enzyme family and feature a Co₂(μ-OH)₂ diamond core stabilized by intramolecular H-bond interactions. We define the conditions required for the kinetically controlled synthesis of these complexes: [Co₂(μ-OH)₂(μ-OAc)(κ¹-OAc)₂(py^R)₄][PF₆] (1^R), where OAc = acetate and py^R = pyridine with para-substituent R, and we describe a homologous series of 1^R in which the para-R substituent on pyridine is modulated. The solid state X-ray diffraction (XRD) structures of 1^R are similar across the series, but in solution, their ¹H NMR spectra reveal a linear free energy relationship (LFER) where, as R becomes increasingly electron-withdrawing, the intramolecular H-bond interaction between bridging μ-OH and κ¹-acetate ligands results in increasingly "oxo-like" μ-OH bridges. Deprotonation of the bridging μ-OH results in the quantitative conversion to corresponding cubane complexes: [Co₄(μ-O)₄(μ₃-OAc)₄(py^R)₄] (2^R), which represent the thermodynamic sink of self-assembly. These reactions are unusually slow for rate-limiting deprotonation events, but rapid-mixing experiments reveal a 6000-fold rate acceleration on going from R = OMe to R = CN. These results suggest that we can tune reactivity by modulating the μ-OH pK_a in the presence of intramolecular H-bond interactions to maintain stability as the octahedral d⁶ centers become increasingly acidic. Nature may similarly employ dynamic carboxylate-mediated H-bond interactions to control the reactivity of acidic transition metal-oxo intermediates.

Efficient alkane hydroxylation catalysis of nickel(ii) complexes with oxazoline donor containing tripodal tetradentate ligands

Tris(oxazolynylmethyl)amine TOA^R (where R denotes the substituent groups on the fourth position of the oxazoline rings) complexes of nickel(ii) have been synthesized as catalyst precursors for alkane oxidation with meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (m-CPBA). The molecular structures of acetato, nitrato, meta-chlorobenzoato and chlorido complexes with TOA^Me2 have been determined using X-ray crystallography. The bulkiness of the substituent groups R affects the coordination environment of the nickel(ii) centers, as has been demonstrated by comparison of the molecular structures of chlorido complexes with TOA^Me2 and TOA^tBu. The nickel(ii)-acetato complex with TOA^Me2 is an efficient catalyst precursor compared with the tris(pyridylmethyl)amine (TPA) analogue. Oxazolynyl donors' strong σ-electron donating ability will enhance the catalytic activity. Catalytic reaction rates and substrate oxidizing position selectivity are controlled by the structural properties of the R of TOA^R. Reaction of the acetato complex with TOA^Me2 and m-CPBA yields the corresponding acylperoxido species, which can be detected using spectroscopy. Kinetic studies of the decay process of the acylperoxido species suggest that the acylperoxido species is a precursor of an active species for alkane oxidation.

Highly Reactive CoIII,IV2(μ-O)2 Diamond Core Complex That Cleaves C-H Bonds

The selective activation of strong sp³ C-H bonds at mild conditions is a key step in many biological and synthetic transformations and an unsolved challenge for synthetic chemists. In nature, soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) is one representative example of nonheme dinuclear iron-dependent enzymes that activate strong sp³ C-H bonds by a high-valent diiron(IV) intermediate Q. To date, synthetic model complexes of sMMO-Q have shown limited abilities to oxidize strong C-H bonds. In this work, we generated a high-valent Co^III,IV₂(μ-O)₂ complex 3 supported by a tetradentate tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (TPA) ligand via one-electron oxidation of its Co^III₂(μ-O)₂ precursor 2. Characterization of 2 and 3 using X-ray absorption spectroscopy and DFT calculations showed that both species possess a diamond core structure with a short Co···Co distance of 2.78 Å. Furthermore, 3 is an EPR active species showing an S = 1/2 signal with clearly observable hyperfine splittings originated from the coupling of the ⁵⁹Co nuclear spin with the electronic spin. Importantly, 3 is a highly reactive oxidant for sp³ C-H bonds, and an oxygenation reagent. 3 has the highest rate constant (1.5 M^-1 s^-1 at -60 °C) for oxidizing 9,10-dihydroanthracene (DHA) compared to diamond core complexes of other first-row transition metals including Mn, Fe and Cu reported previously. Specifically, 3 is about 4-5 orders of magnitude more reactive than the diiron analogs Fe^III,IV₂(μ-O)₂ and Fe^IV₂(μ-O)₂ supported by TPA and related ligands. These findings shed light on future development of more reactive approaches for C-H bond activation by bioinspired dicobalt complexes.

Indirect evidence for a NiIII–oxyl oxidant in the reaction of a NiII complex with peracid

The oxidation of a Ni^II complex with m-CPBA is shown to promote the formation of a transient Ni^III–O˙ species. Methine C–H bond activation in the supporting ligand by this species led to a benzoxazine product.

Terminal NiII-OH/-OH2 complexes in trigonal bipyramidal geometries derived from H2O

The preparation and characterization of two NiII complexes are described, a terminal NiII-OH complex with the tripodal ligand tris[(N)-tertbutylureaylato)-N-ethyl)]aminato ([H3buea]3-) and a terminal Ni II-OH2 complex with the tripodal ligand N,N',N″-[2,2',2″-nitrilotris(ethane-2,1-diyl)]tris(2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamido) ([MST]3-). For both complexes, the source of the -OH and -OH2 ligand is water. The salts K2[NiIIH3buea(OH)] and NMe4[NiIIMST(OH2)] were characterized using perpendicular-mode X-band electronic paramagnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared, UV-visible spectroscopies, and its electrochemical properties were evaluated using cyclic voltammetry. The solid state structures of these complexes determined by X-ray diffraction methods reveal that they adopt a distorted trigonal bipyramidal geometry, an unusual structure for 5-coordinate NiII complexes. Moreover, the NiII-OH and NiII-OH2 units form intramolecular hydrogen bonding networks with the [H3buea]3- and [MST]3- ligands. The oxidation chemistry of these complexes was explored by treating the high-spin NiII compounds with one-electron oxidants. Species were formed with S = 1/2 spin ground states that are consistent with formation of monomeric NiIII species. While the formation of NiIII-OH complexes cannot be ruled out, the lack of observable O-H vibrations from the putative Ni-OH units suggest the possibility that other high valent Ni species are formed.

A New Domain of Reactivity for High-Valent Dinuclear [M(μ-O)2 M'] Complexes in Oxidation Reactions

The strikingly different reactivity of a series of homo- and heterodinuclear [(MIII )(μ-O)2 (MIII )']2+ (M=Ni; M'=Fe, Co, Ni and M=M'=Co) complexes with β-diketiminate ligands in electrophilic and nucleophilic oxidation reactions is reported, and can be correlated to the spectroscopic features of the [(MIII )(μ-O)2 (MIII )']2+ core. In particular, the unprecedented nucleophilic reactivity of the symmetric [NiIII (μ-O)2 NiIII ]2+ complex and the decay of the asymmetric [NiIII (μ-O)2 CoIII ]2+ core through aromatic hydroxylation reactions represent a new domain for high-valent bis(μ-oxido)dimetal reactivity.

Novel nickel(ii) complexes of sterically modified linear N4 ligands: effect of ligand stereoelectronic factors and solvent of coordination on nickel(ii) spin-state and catalytic alkane hydroxylation

The donor atom type and diazacyclo backbone of the ligands and solvent of coordination dictate the Ni(ii) spin state (4, LS; 1–3, 5, HS) and catalytic activity of complexes.

Oxygen activation by mononuclear Mn, Co, and Ni centers in biology and synthetic complexes

The active sites of metalloenzymes that catalyze O₂-dependent reactions generally contain iron or copper ions. However, several enzymes are capable of activating O₂ at manganese or nickel centers instead, and a handful of dioxygenases exhibit activity when substituted with cobalt. This minireview summarizes the catalytic properties of oxygenases and oxidases with mononuclear Mn, Co, or Ni active sites, including oxalate-degrading oxidases, catechol dioxygenases, and quercetin dioxygenase. In addition, recent developments in the O₂ reactivity of synthetic Mn, Co, or Ni complexes are described, with an emphasis on the nature of reactive intermediates featuring superoxo-, peroxo-, or oxo-ligands. Collectively, the biochemical and synthetic studies discussed herein reveal the possibilities and limitations of O₂ activation at these three "overlooked" metals.

Tuning the Reactivity of Terminal Nickel(III)-Oxygen Adducts for C-H Bond Activation

Two metastable Ni^III complexes, [Ni^III(OAc)(L)] and [Ni^III(ONO₂)(L)] (L = N,N'-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-2,6-pyridinedicarboxamidate, OAc = acetate), were prepared, adding to the previously prepared [Ni^III(OCO₂H)(L)], with the purpose of probing the properties of terminal late-transition metal oxidants. These high-valent oxidants were prepared by the one-electron oxidation of their Ni^II precursors ([Ni^II(OAc)(L)]^- and [Ni^II(ONO₂)(L)]^-) with tris(4-bromophenyl)ammoniumyl hexachloroantimonate. Fascinatingly, the reaction between any [Ni^II(X)(L)]^- and NaOCl/acetic acid (AcOH) or cerium ammonium nitrate ((NH₄)₂[Ce^IV(NO₃)₆], CAN), yielded [Ni^III(OAc)(L)] and [Ni^III(ONO₂)(L)], respectively. An array of spectroscopic characterizations (electronic absorption, electron paramagnetic resonance, X-ray absorption spectroscopies), electrochemical methods, and computational predictions (density functional theory) have been used to determine the structural, electronic, and magnetic properties of these highly reactive metastable oxidants. The Ni^III-oxidants proved competent in the oxidation of phenols (weak O-H bonds) and a series of hydrocarbon substrates (some with strong C-H bonds). Kinetic investigation of the reactions with di-tert-butylphenols showed a 15-fold enhanced reaction rate for [Ni^III(ONO₂)(L)] compared to [Ni^III(OCO₂H)(L)] and [Ni^III(OAc)(L)], demonstrating the effect of electron-deficiency of the O-ligand on oxidizing power. The oxidation of a series of hydrocarbons by [Ni^III(OAc)(L)] was further examined. A linear correlation between the rate constant and the bond dissociation energy of the C-H bonds in the substrates was indicative of a hydrogen atom transfer mechanism. The reaction rate with dihydroanthracene (k₂ = 8.1 M^-1 s^-1) compared favorably with the most reactive high-valent metal-oxidants, and showcases the exceptional reactivity of late transition metal-oxygen adducts.

Changing the chemical and physical properties of high valent heterobimetallic bis-(μ-oxido) Cu–Ni complexes by ligand effects

Two new heterobimetallic [LNiO₂Cu(RPY2)]⁺ (RPY2 = N-substituted bis 2-pyridyl(ethylamine) ligands with R = indane, 3a or R = Me, 3b) complexes have been spectroscopically trapped at low temperatures.

Quasi-three-coordinate iron and cobalt terphenoxide complexes {Ar(iPr8)OM(μ-O)}2 (Ar(iPr8) = C6H-2,6-(C6H2-2,4,6-(i)Pr3)2-3,5-(i)Pr2; M = Fe or Co) with M(III)2(μ-O)2 core structures and the peroxide dimer of 2-oxepinoxy relevant to benzene oxidation

The bis(μ-oxo) dimeric complexes {Ar(iPr8)OM(μ-O)}2 (Ar(iPr8) = C6H-2,6-(C6H2-2,4,6-(i)Pr3)2-3,5-(i)Pr2; M = Fe (1), Co (2)) were prepared by oxidation of the M(I) half-sandwich complexes {Ar(iPr8)M(η(6)-arene)} (arene = benzene or toluene). Iron species 1 was prepared by reacting {Ar(iPr8)Fe(η(6)-benzene)} with N2O or O2, and cobalt species 2 was prepared by reacting {Ar(iPr8)Co(η(6)-toluene)} with O2. Both 1 and 2 were characterized by X-ray crystallography, UV-vis spectroscopy, magnetic measurements, and, in the case of 1, Mössbauer spectroscopy. The solid-state structures of both compounds reveal unique M2(μ-O)2 (M = Fe (1), Co(2)) cores with formally three-coordinate metal ions. The Fe···Fe separation in 1 bears a resemblance to that in the Fe2(μ-O)2 diamond core proposed for the methane monooxygenase intermediate Q. The structural differences between 1 and 2 are reflected in rather differing magnetic behavior. Compound 2 is thermally unstable, and its decomposition at room temperature resulted in the oxidation of the Ar(iPr8) ligand via oxygen insertion and addition to the central aryl ring of the terphenyl ligand to produce the 5,5'-peroxy-bis[4,6-(i)Pr2-3,7-bis(2,4,6-(i)Pr3-phenyl)oxepin-2(5H)-one] (3). The structure of the oxidized terphenyl species is closely related to that of a key intermediate proposed for the oxidation of benzene.

Blocking and bridging ligands direct the structure and magnetic properties of dimers of pentacoordinate nickel(II)

Dinuclear pentacoordinate nickel(ii) complexes of the formula [(NiTp*)2(μ-L)] (Tp* = hydrotris(3,5-dimethylpyrazolyl)borate; L = oxalate (); oxamate (); oxamidate (); OC(4-Cl-C6H4N)C(4-Cl-C6H4N)O ()) and {[Ni(N3-mc)]2(μ-L)}(PF6)2 (N3-mc = 2,4,4-trimethyl-1,5,9-triazacyclododec-1-ene; L = oxalate (); oxamate ()) have been synthesized and spectroscopically characterized (IR, (1)H NMR). X-ray structures of show nickel(ii) in a square pyramidal geometry and different supramolecular interactions. Magnetic measurements for show strong antiferromagnetic interactions across the bridging ligand [: J = -36.8 cm(-1), g = 2.16; : J = -43.6 cm(-1), g = 2.12; : J = -51.1 cm(-1), g = 2.12; : J = -39.7 cm(-1), g = 2.18; : J = -35.4 cm(-1), g = 2.20; : J = -44.3 cm(-1), g = 2.18]. Magneto-structural correlations between the magnitude of the magnetic coupling and the different blocking ligands, the different bridging ligands, the distortion of the coordination environment of Ni(ii) and the planarity between the bridging ligand and the basal plane of the Ni(ii) environment have been established for all complexes.

Characterization and reactivity of a terminal nickel(III)-oxygen adduct

High-valent terminal metal-oxygen adducts are hypothesized to be the potent oxidizing reactants in late transition metal oxidation catalysis. In particular, examples of high-valent terminal nickel-oxygen adducts are scarce, meaning there is a dearth in the understanding of such oxidants. A monoanionic Ni(II)-bicarbonate complex has been found to react in a 1:1 ratio with the one-electron oxidant tris(4-bromophenyl)ammoniumyl hexachloroantimonate, yielding a thermally unstable intermediate in high yield (ca. 95%). Electronic absorption, electronic paramagnetic resonance, and X-ray absorption spectroscopies and density functional theory calculations confirm its description as a low-spin (S = 1/2), square planar Ni(III)-oxygen adduct. This rare example of a high-valent terminal nickel-oxygen complex performs oxidations of organic substrates, including 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol and triphenylphosphine, which are indicative of hydrogen atom abstraction and oxygen atom transfer reactivity, respectively.

Carbon-hydrogen bond activation, C-N bond coupling, and cycloaddition reactivity of a three-coordinate nickel complex featuring a terminal imido ligand

The three-coordinate imidos (dtbpe)Ni═NR (dtbpe = (t)Bu2PCH2CH2P(t)Bu2, R = 2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3, 2,4,6-Me3C6H2 (Mes), and 1-adamantyl (Ad)), which contain a legitimate Ni-N double bond as well as basic imido nitrogen based on theoretical analysis, readily deprotonate HC≡CPh to form the amide acetylide species (dtbpe)Ni{NH(Ar)}(C≡CPh). In the case of R = 2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3, reductive carbonylation results in formation of the (dtbpe)Ni(CO)2 along with the N-C coupled product keteneimine PhCH═C═N(2,6- (i)Pr2C6H3). Given the ability of the Ni═N bond to have biradical character as suggested by theoretical analysis, H atom abstraction can also occur in (dtbpe)Ni═N{2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3} when this species is treated with HSn((n)Bu)3. Likewise, the microscopic reverse reaction--conversion of the Ni(I) anilide (dtbpe)Ni{NH(2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3)} to the imido (dtbpe)Ni═N{2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3}--is promoted when using the radical Mes*O(•) (Mes* = 2,4,6-(t)Bu3C6H2). Reactivity studies involving the imido complexes, in particular (dtbpe)Ni═N{2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3}, are also reported with small, unsaturated molecules such as diphenylketene, benzylisocyanate, benzaldehyde, and carbon dioxide, including the formation of C-N and N-N bonds by coupling reactions. In addition to NMR spectroscopic data and combustion analysis, we also report structural studies for all the cycloaddition reactions involving the imido (dtbpe)Ni═N{2,6-(i)Pr2C6H3}.

Hydrogen Peroxide as a Sustainable Energy Carrier: Electrocatalytic Production of Hydrogen Peroxide and the Fuel Cell

This review describes homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic reduction of dioxygen with metal complexes focusing on the catalytic two-electron reduction of dioxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide. Whether two-electron reduction of dioxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide or four-electron O2-reduction to produce water occurs depends on the types of metals and ligands that are utilized. Those factors controlling the two processes are discussed in terms of metal-oxygen intermediates involved in the catalysis. Metal complexes acting as catalysts for selective two-electron reduction of oxygen can be utilized as metal complex-modified electrodes in the electrocatalytic reduction to produce hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide thus produced can be used as a fuel in a hydrogen peroxide fuel cell. A hydrogen peroxide fuel cell can be operated with a one-compartment structure without a membrane, which is certainly more promising for the development of low-cost fuel cells as compared with two compartment hydrogen fuel cells that require membranes. Hydrogen peroxide is regarded as an environmentally benign energy carrier because it can be produced by the electrocatalytic two-electron reduction of O2, which is abundant in air, using solar cells; the hydrogen peroxide thus produced could then be readily stored and then used as needed to generate electricity through the use of hydrogen peroxide fuel cells.

Dioxygen activation and substrate oxygenation by a p-nitrothiophenolatonickel complex: unique effects of an acetonitrile solvent and the p-nitro group of the ligand

The nickel(II) complex [Ni(Tp(Me2)) (SC(6)H(4)NO(2))] [1a; Tp(Me2) = hydrotris(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)borate] reacts with O(2) to form the ligand oxygenation product ArSO(2)(-) in MeCN, and also 1a catalyzes the oxygenation of external substrates such as triphenylphosphine. The reactivity may correlate to the unique quinoid-like resonance structure of the thiophenolate ligand. The structure is stabilized by a p-nitro group and induced by coordination of MeCN.