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Singh A, Lankapalli AK, Mendem SK, Semmler T, Ahmed N. Unraveling the evolutionary dynamics of toxin-antitoxin systems in diverse genetic lineages of Escherichia coli including the high-risk clonal complexes. mBio 2024; 15:e0302323. [PMID: 38117088 PMCID: PMC10790755 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03023-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Large-scale genomic studies of E. coli provide an invaluable opportunity to understand how genomic fine-tuning contributes to the transition of bacterial lifestyle from being commensals to mutualists or pathogens. Within this context, through machine learning-based studies, it appears that TA systems play an important role in the classification of high-risk clonal lineages and could be attributed to their epidemiological success. Due to these profound indications and assumptions, we attempted to provide unique insights into the ordered world of TA systems at the population level by investigating the diversity and evolutionary patterns of TA genes across 19 different STs of E. coli. Further in-depth analysis of ST-specific TA structures and associated genetic coordinates holds the potential to elucidate the functional implications of TA systems in bacterial cell survival and persistence, by and large.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuradha Singh
- Pathogen Biology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Aditya Kumar Lankapalli
- Department of Biology and the Ineos Oxford Institute for Antimicrobial Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Suresh Kumar Mendem
- Pathogen Biology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | | | - Niyaz Ahmed
- Pathogen Biology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
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2
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Mogila I, Tamulaitiene G, Keda K, Timinskas A, Ruksenaite A, Sasnauskas G, Venclovas Č, Siksnys V, Tamulaitis G. Ribosomal stalk-captured CARF-RelE ribonuclease inhibits translation following CRISPR signaling. Science 2023; 382:1036-1041. [PMID: 38033086 DOI: 10.1126/science.adj2107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Prokaryotic type III CRISPR-Cas antiviral systems employ cyclic oligoadenylate (cAn) signaling to activate a diverse range of auxiliary proteins that reinforce the CRISPR-Cas defense. Here we characterize a class of cAn-dependent effector proteins named CRISPR-Cas-associated messenger RNA (mRNA) interferase 1 (Cami1) consisting of a CRISPR-associated Rossmann fold sensor domain fused to winged helix-turn-helix and a RelE-family mRNA interferase domain. Upon activation by cyclic tetra-adenylate (cA4), Cami1 cleaves mRNA exposed at the ribosomal A-site thereby depleting mRNA and leading to cell growth arrest. The structures of apo-Cami1 and the ribosome-bound Cami1-cA4 complex delineate the conformational changes that lead to Cami1 activation and the mechanism of Cami1 binding to a bacterial ribosome, revealing unexpected parallels with eukaryotic ribosome-inactivating proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irmantas Mogila
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Giedre Tamulaitiene
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Konstanty Keda
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Albertas Timinskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Audrone Ruksenaite
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Giedrius Sasnauskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Česlovas Venclovas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Virginijus Siksnys
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Gintautas Tamulaitis
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio av. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
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Choi W, Maharjan A, Im HG, Park JY, Park JT, Park JH. Identification and Characterization of HEPN-MNT Type II TA System from Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus ΔH. J Microbiol 2023; 61:411-421. [PMID: 37071293 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-023-00041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widespread in bacteria and archaea plasmids and genomes to regulate DNA replication, gene transcription, or protein translation. Higher eukaryotic and prokaryotic nucleotide-binding (HEPN) and minimal nucleotidyltransferase (MNT) domains are prevalent in prokaryotic genomes and constitute TA pairs. However, three gene pairs (MTH304/305, 408/409, and 463/464) of Methanothermobacter thermautotropicus ΔH HEPN-MNT family have not been studied as TA systems. Among these candidates, our study characterizes the MTH463/MTH464 TA system. MTH463 expression inhibited Escherichia coli growth, whereas MTH464 did not and blocked MTH463 instead. Using site-directed MTH463 mutagenesis, we determined that amino acids R99G, H104A, and Y106A from the R[ɸX]4-6H motif are involved with MTH463 cell toxicity. Furthermore, we established that purified MTH463 could degrade MS2 phage RNA, whereas purified MTH464 neutralized MTH463 activity in vitro. Our results indicate that the endonuclease toxin MTH463 (encoding a HEPN domain) and its cognate antitoxin MTH464 (encoding the MNT domain) may act as a type II TA system in M. thermautotropicus ΔH. This study provides initial and essential information studying TA system functions, primarily archaea HEPN-MNT family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonho Choi
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28116, Republic of Korea
- 4D Convergence Technology Institute (National Key Technology Institute in University), Korea National University of Transportation, Jungpyeong, 27909, Republic of Korea
| | - Anoth Maharjan
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Gang Im
- BIORCHESTRA Co., LTD., Daejeon, 34013, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Young Park
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Tae Park
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jung-Ho Park
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28116, Republic of Korea.
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Krin E, Baharoglu Z, Sismeiro O, Varet H, Coppée JY, Mazel D. Systematic transcriptome analysis allows the identification of new type I and type II Toxin/Antitoxin systems located in the superintegron of Vibrio cholerae. Res Microbiol 2023; 174:103997. [PMID: 36347445 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2022.103997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Vibrio cholerae N16961 genome encodes 18 type II Toxin/Antitoxin (TA) systems, all but one located inside gene cassettes of its chromosomal superintegron (SI). This study aims to investigate additional TA systems in this genome. We screened for all two-genes operons of uncharacterized function by analyzing previous RNAseq data. Assays on nine candidates, revealed one additional functional type II TA encoded by the VCA0497-0498 operon, carried inside a SI cassette. We showed that VCA0498 antitoxin alone and in complex with VCA0497 represses its own operon promoter. VCA0497-0498 is the second element of the recently identified dhiT/dhiA superfamily uncharacterized type II TA system. RNAseq analysis revealed that another SI cassette encodes a novel type I TA system: VCA0495 gene and its two associated antisense non-coding RNAs, ncRNA495 and ncRNA496. Silencing of both antisense ncRNAs lead to cell death, demonstrating the type I TA function. Both VCA0497 and VCA0495 toxins do not show any homology to functionally characterized toxins, however our preliminary data suggest that their activity may end up in mRNA degradation, directly or indirectly. Our findings increase the TA systems number carried in this SI to 19, preferentially located in its distal end, confirming their importance in this large cassette array.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Krin
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3525, Unité de Plasticité du Génome Bactérien, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Zeynep Baharoglu
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3525, Unité de Plasticité du Génome Bactérien, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Odile Sismeiro
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Transcriptome and EpiGenome, Biomics Center for Innovation and Technological Research, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Hugo Varet
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Transcriptome and EpiGenome, Biomics Center for Innovation and Technological Research, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Jean-Yves Coppée
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Transcriptome and EpiGenome, Biomics Center for Innovation and Technological Research, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Didier Mazel
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3525, Unité de Plasticité du Génome Bactérien, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75015 Paris, France.
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Yu V, Ronzone E, Lord D, Peti W, Page R. MqsR is a noncanonical microbial RNase toxin that is inhibited by antitoxin MqsA via steric blockage of substrate binding. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102535. [PMID: 36162504 PMCID: PMC9636575 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The MqsRA toxin-antitoxin system is a component of the Escherichia coli stress response. Free MqsR, a ribonuclease, cleaves mRNAs containing a 5′-GC-3′ sequence causing a global shutdown of translation and the cell to enter a state of dormancy. Despite a general understanding of MqsR function, the molecular mechanism(s) by which MqsR binds and cleaves RNA and how one or more of these activities is inhibited by its cognate antitoxin MqsA is still poorly understood. Here, we used NMR spectroscopy coupled with mRNA cleavage assays to identify the molecular mechanism of MqsR substrate recognition and the MqsR residues that are essential for its catalytic activity. We show that MqsR preferentially binds substrates that contain purines in the −2 and −1 position relative to the MqsR consensus cleavage sequence and that two residues of MqsR, Tyr81, and Lys56 are strictly required for mRNA cleavage. We also show that MqsA inhibits MqsR activity by sterically blocking mRNA substrates from binding while leaving the active site fully accessible to mononucleotides. Together, these data identify the residues of MqsR that mediate RNA cleavage and reveal a novel mechanism that regulates MqsR substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Yu
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Erik Ronzone
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Dana Lord
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Wolfgang Peti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Rebecca Page
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA.
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Global Analysis of the Specificities and Targets of Endoribonucleases from Escherichia coli Toxin-Antitoxin Systems. mBio 2021; 12:e0201221. [PMID: 34544284 PMCID: PMC8546651 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02012-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxin-antitoxin systems are widely distributed genetic modules typically featuring toxins that can inhibit bacterial growth and antitoxins that can reverse inhibition. Although Escherichia coli encodes 11 toxins with known or putative endoribonuclease activity, the targets of most of these toxins remain poorly characterized. Using a new RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) pipeline that enables the mapping and quantification of RNA cleavage with single-nucleotide resolution, we characterized the targets and specificities of 9 endoribonuclease toxins from E. coli. We found that these toxins use low-information cleavage motifs to cut a significant proportion of mRNAs in E. coli, but not tRNAs or the rRNAs from mature ribosomes. However, all the toxins, including those that are ribosome dependent and cleave only translated RNA, inhibit ribosome biogenesis. This inhibition likely results from the cleavage of ribosomal protein transcripts, which disrupts the stoichiometry and biogenesis of new ribosomes and causes the accumulation of aberrant ribosome precursors. Collectively, our results provide a comprehensive, global analysis of endoribonuclease-based toxin-antitoxin systems in E. coli and support the conclusion that, despite their diversity, each disrupts translation and ribosome biogenesis.
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Abstract
Bacterial endoribonuclease toxins belong to a protein family that inhibits bacterial growth by degrading mRNA or rRNA sequences. The toxin genes are organized in pairs with its cognate antitoxins in the chromosome and thus the activities of the toxins are antagonized by antitoxin proteins or RNAs during active translation. In response to a variety of cellular stresses, the endoribonuclease toxins appear to be released from antitoxin molecules via proteolytic cleavage of antitoxin proteins or preferential degradation of antitoxin RNAs and cleave a diverse range of mRNA or rRNA sequences in a sequence-specific or codon-specific manner, resulting in various biological phenomena such as antibiotic tolerance and persister cell formation. Given that substrate specificity of each endoribonuclease toxin is determined by its structure and the composition of active site residues, we summarize the biology, structure, and substrate specificity of the updated bacterial endoribonuclease toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoontak Han
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea
| | - Eun-Jin Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea
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Jurėnas D, Van Melderen L. The Variety in the Common Theme of Translation Inhibition by Type II Toxin-Antitoxin Systems. Front Genet 2020; 11:262. [PMID: 32362907 PMCID: PMC7180214 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Type II Toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are bacterial operons that encode a toxic protein and its antidote, which form a self-regulating genetic system. Antitoxins put a halter on toxins in many ways that distinguish different types of TA modules. In type II TA modules, toxin and antitoxin are proteins that form a complex which physically sequesters the toxin, thereby preventing its toxic activity. Type II toxins inhibit various cellular processes, however, the translation process appears to be their favorite target and nearly every step of this complex process is inhibited by type II toxins. The structural features, enzymatic activities and target specificities of the different toxin families are discussed. Finally, this review emphasizes that the structural folds presented by these toxins are not restricted to type II TA toxins or to one particular cellular target, and discusses why so many of them evolved to target translation as well as the recent developments regarding the role(s) of these systems in bacterial physiology and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dukas Jurėnas
- Laboratoire d’Ingénierie des Systèmes Macromoléculaires, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Laurence Van Melderen
- Cellular and Molecular Microbiology, Faculté des Sciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
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Park JH, Park JH, Choi W, Lim BK. Specific elimination of coxsackievirus B3 infected cells with a protein engineered toxin-antitoxin system. Mol Cell Toxicol 2019; 15:425-430. [PMID: 32226459 PMCID: PMC7097453 DOI: 10.1007/s13273-019-0046-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Backgrounds Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is a member of the family Picornaviridae, and along with polio-viruses, belongs to the Enterovirus genus. The CVB3 genome is composed single-stranded RNA encoding polyproteins, which are cleaved to individual functional proteins by 2A and 3C proteases proteins which have been targeted for drug development. Here, we showed that protease activity required to activate a toxic protein may be used to prevent viral infection. Methods We modified the MazE-MazF antitoxin-toxin system of Escherichia coli to fuse a C-terminal fragment of MazE to the N-terminal end of toxin MazF with a linker having a specific protease cleavage site for CVB3. This fusion protein formed a stable dimer and was capable of inactivating the mRNA interferase activity of MazF which cleaves the ACA sequence in mRNA substrates. Results The incubation of 2A proteases with the fusion proteins induced cleavage between the MazE and MazF fragments from the fusion proteins; the subsequent release of MazF significantly inhibited virus replication. Additionally, we note that, CVB3 infected HeLa cells quickly died through a MazF toxin mediated effect before virus protein expression. Conclusion These findings suggest that the MazEF fusion protein has a strong potential to be developed as an anti-virus therapy following CVB3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Ho Park
- 1Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28120 Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Ho Park
- 2Department of Biomedical Science, Jungwon University, Goesan-gun, Chungbuk, 28024 Republic of Korea
| | - Wonho Choi
- 1Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, 28120 Republic of Korea
| | - Byung-Kwan Lim
- 2Department of Biomedical Science, Jungwon University, Goesan-gun, Chungbuk, 28024 Republic of Korea
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Park JH, Lee JW, Choi H, Jung SK, Kim JS, Kim KW, Oh KB, Yang H, Byun SJ. Survival of Escherichia coli harboring nucleic acid-hydrolyzing 3D8 scFv during RNA virus infection. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 94:286-292. [PMID: 29486271 PMCID: PMC7115797 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Previously, Escherichia coli harboring the codon-optimized 3D8scFv gene (E. coli 3D8scFv) was developed as a feed additive for use in preventing norovirus infection. Here, we evaluated whether the 3D8scFv gene affects the colonization of E coli when E. coli 3D8scFv passes through the mouse gastrointestinal tract. To determine the colonization ability of E. coli 3D8scFv, E. coli cells with or without the 3D8scFv gene were fed to mice. Total DNA was extracted from the animals’ stools, stomach, small intestine and colon. All samples were amplified using 3D8scFv gene-specific primer sets. E. coli 3D8scFv begins to be excreted 1 h after feeding and that all E. coli 3D8scFv cells were excreted between 12 and 24 h after the last feeding of the cells. The previously measured gastrointestinal transit time of the mice was between 8 h and 22 h. The results of this study therefore show that E. coli 3D8scFv cannot colonize the gastrointestinal tracts of mice. In addition, if the purified 3D8 scFv protein is used as a feed additive, any associated E. coli 3D8scFv bacteria will not colonize the gastrointestinal tracts of the livestock. Thus, this feed additive meets the safety assessment criteria for the commercial use of bacteria. It is evaluated whether E. coli 3D8scFv colonizes in the gastrointestinal tracts of mice. Orally ingested E. coli 3D8scFv is excreted from mice without colonization of the gastrointestinal tract. Purified 3D8 scFv is suitable for a feed additive according to the concept of substantial equivalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Ho Park
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk-do 28116, South Korea
| | - Jae-Woo Lee
- Bio-Evaluation Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk-do 28116, South Korea; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, South Korea
| | - Hoonsung Choi
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Sun Keun Jung
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Jeom Sun Kim
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Kyung-Woon Kim
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Keon Bong Oh
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Hyeon Yang
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea
| | - Sung June Byun
- Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA, 1500, Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea.
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11
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Belasco JG. Death by translation: ribosome-assisted degradation of mRNA by endonuclease toxins. FEBS Lett 2017. [PMID: 28649728 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joel G Belasco
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, NY, USA
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