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Podlesainski D, Adeniyi ET, Gröner Y, Schulz F, Krisilia V, Rehberg N, Richter T, Sehr D, Xie H, Simons VE, Kiffe-Delf AL, Kaschani F, Ioerger TR, Kaiser M, Kalscheuer R. The anti-tubercular callyaerins target the Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific non-essential membrane protein Rv2113. Cell Chem Biol 2024:S2451-9456(24)00221-6. [PMID: 38981479 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2024.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Spread of antimicrobial resistances urges a need for new drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) with mechanisms differing from current antibiotics. Previously, callyaerins were identified as promising anti-tubercular agents, representing a class of hydrophobic cyclopeptides with an unusual (Z)-2,3-di-aminoacrylamide unit. Here, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying their antimycobacterial properties. Structure-activity relationship studies enabled the identification of structural determinants relevant for antibacterial activity. Callyaerins are bacteriostatics selectively active against Mtb, including extensively drug-resistant strains, with minimal cytotoxicity against human cells and promising intracellular activity. By combining mutant screens and various chemical proteomics approaches, we showed that callyaerins target the non-essential, Mtb-specific membrane protein Rv2113, triggering a complex dysregulation of the proteome, characterized by global downregulation of lipid biosynthesis, cell division, DNA repair, and replication. Our study thus identifies Rv2113 as a previously undescribed Mtb-specific drug target and demonstrates that also non-essential proteins may represent efficacious targets for antimycobacterial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Podlesainski
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Emmanuel T Adeniyi
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Yvonne Gröner
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Florian Schulz
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Violetta Krisilia
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Nidja Rehberg
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Tim Richter
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Daria Sehr
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Huzhuyue Xie
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Viktor E Simons
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Anna-Lene Kiffe-Delf
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Farnusch Kaschani
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Thomas R Ioerger
- Department of Computer Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Markus Kaiser
- Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), Faculty of Biology, Chemical Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany.
| | - Rainer Kalscheuer
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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2
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Nijland M, Lefebvre SN, Thangaratnarajah C, Slotboom DJ. Bidirectional ATP-driven transport of cobalamin by the mycobacterial ABC transporter BacA. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2626. [PMID: 38521790 PMCID: PMC10960864 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46917-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BacA is a mycobacterial ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter involved in the translocation of water-soluble compounds across the lipid bilayer. Whole-cell-based assays have shown that BacA imports cobalamin as well as unrelated hydrophilic compounds such as the antibiotic bleomycin and the antimicrobial peptide Bac7 into the cytoplasm. Surprisingly, there are indications that BacA also mediates the export of different antibacterial compounds, which is difficult to reconcile with the notion that ABC transporters generally operate in a strictly unidirectional manner. Here we resolve this conundrum by developing a fluorescence-based transport assay to monitor the transport of cobalamin across liposomal membranes. We find that BacA transports cobalamin in both the import and export direction. This highly unusual bidirectionality suggests that BacA is mechanistically distinct from other ABC transporters and facilitates ATP-driven diffusion, a function that may be important for the evolvability of specific transporters, and may bring competitive advantages to microbial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Nijland
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen, Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Solène N Lefebvre
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen, Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Chancievan Thangaratnarajah
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen, Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Sosei Heptares, Steinmetz Building, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge, CB21 6DG, UK
| | - Dirk J Slotboom
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen, Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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3
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Rudolph M, Tampé R, Joseph B. Time-Resolved Mn 2+ -NO and NO-NO Distance Measurements Reveal That Catalytic Asymmetry Regulates Alternating Access in an ABC Transporter. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202307091. [PMID: 37459565 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202307091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters shuttle diverse substrates across biological membranes. Transport is often achieved through a transition between an inward-facing (IF) and an outward-facing (OF) conformation of the transmembrane domains (TMDs). Asymmetric nucleotide-binding sites (NBSs) are present among several ABC subfamilies and their functional role remains elusive. Here we addressed this question using concomitant NO-NO, Mn2+ -NO, and Mn2+ -Mn2+ pulsed electron-electron double-resonance spectroscopy of TmrAB in a time-resolved manner. This type-IV ABC transporter undergoes a reversible transition in the presence of ATP with a significantly faster forward transition. The impaired degenerate NBS stably binds Mn2+ -ATP, and Mn2+ is preferentially released at the active consensus NBS. ATP hydrolysis at the consensus NBS considerably accelerates the reverse transition. Both NBSs fully open during each conformational cycle and the degenerate NBS may regulate the kinetics of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Rudolph
- Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 14, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Tampé
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, 60438, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Benesh Joseph
- Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 14, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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4
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Jacobo-Delgado YM, Rodríguez-Carlos A, Serrano CJ, Rivas-Santiago B. Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell-wall and antimicrobial peptides: a mission impossible? Front Immunol 2023; 14:1194923. [PMID: 37266428 PMCID: PMC10230078 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1194923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is one of the most important infectious agents worldwide and causes more than 1.5 million deaths annually. To make matters worse, the drug resistance among Mtb strains has risen substantially in the last few decades. Nowadays, it is not uncommon to find patients infected with Mtb strains that are virtually resistant to all antibiotics, which has led to the urgent search for new molecules and therapies. Over previous decades, several studies have demonstrated the efficiency of antimicrobial peptides to eliminate even multidrug-resistant bacteria, making them outstanding candidates to counterattack this growing health problem. Nevertheless, the complexity of the Mtb cell wall makes us wonder whether antimicrobial peptides can effectively kill this persistent Mycobacterium. In the present review, we explore the complexity of the Mtb cell wall and analyze the effectiveness of antimicrobial peptides to eliminate the bacilli.
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5
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Panteleev PV, Safronova VN, Kruglikov RN, Bolosov IA, Ovchinnikova TV. Genomic Insights into Bacterial Resistance to Proline-Rich Antimicrobial Peptide Bac7. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:438. [PMID: 37103865 PMCID: PMC10145973 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13040438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Proline-rich antimicrobial peptides (PrAMPs) having a potent antimicrobial activity and a modest toxicity toward mammalian cells attract much attention as new templates for the development of antibiotic drugs. However, a comprehensive understanding of mechanisms of bacterial resistance development to PrAMPs is necessary before their clinical application. In this study, development of the resistance to the proline-rich bovine cathelicidin Bac71-22 derivative was characterized in the multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli clinical isolate causing the urinary tract infection. Three Bac71-22-resistant strains with ≥16-fold increase in minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were selected by serially passaging after four-week experimental evolution. It was shown that in salt-containing medium, the resistance was mediated by inactivation of the SbmA transporter. The absence of salt in the selection media affected both dynamics and main molecular targets under selective pressure: a point mutation leading to the amino acid substitution N159H in the WaaP kinase responsible for heptose I phosphorylation in the LPS structure was also found. This mutation led to a phenotype with a decreased susceptibility to both the Bac71-22 and polymyxin B. Screening of antimicrobial activities with the use of a wide panel of known AMPs, including the human cathelicidin LL-37 and conventional antibiotics, against selected strains indicated no significant cross-resistance effects.
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6
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Imai Y, Hauk G, Quigley J, Liang L, Son S, Ghiglieri M, Gates MF, Morrissette M, Shahsavari N, Niles S, Baldisseri D, Honrao C, Ma X, Guo JJ, Berger JM, Lewis K. Evybactin is a DNA gyrase inhibitor that selectively kills Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:1236-1244. [PMID: 35996001 PMCID: PMC9844538 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01102-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The antimicrobial resistance crisis requires the introduction of novel antibiotics. The use of conventional broad-spectrum compounds selects for resistance in off-target pathogens and harms the microbiome. This is especially true for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, where treatment requires a 6-month course of antibiotics. Here we show that a novel antimicrobial from Photorhabdus noenieputensis, which we named evybactin, is a potent and selective antibiotic acting against M. tuberculosis. Evybactin targets DNA gyrase and binds to a site overlapping with synthetic thiophene poisons. Given the conserved nature of DNA gyrase, the observed selectivity against M. tuberculosis is puzzling. We found that evybactin is smuggled into the cell by a promiscuous transporter of hydrophilic compounds, BacA. Evybactin is the first, but likely not the only, antimicrobial compound found to employ this unusual mechanism of selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Imai
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.,Present address: Department of Biomolecular Innovation, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Shinshu University, Nagano, Japan.,These authors contributed equally: Yu Imai, Glenn Hauk
| | - Glenn Hauk
- Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,These authors contributed equally: Yu Imai, Glenn Hauk
| | - Jeffrey Quigley
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Libang Liang
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sangkeun Son
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Meghan Ghiglieri
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael F. Gates
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Madeleine Morrissette
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Negar Shahsavari
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Samantha Niles
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Chandrashekhar Honrao
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Ma
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jason J. Guo
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.,Barnett Institute for Chemical and Biological Analysis, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - James M. Berger
- Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to James M. Berger or Kim Lewis. ;
| | - Kim Lewis
- Antimicrobial Discovery Center, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.,Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to James M. Berger or Kim Lewis. ;
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7
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Nijland M, Martínez Felices JM, Slotboom DJ, Thangaratnarajah C. Membrane transport of cobalamin. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2022; 119:121-148. [PMID: 35337617 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2022.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A wide variety of organisms encode cobalamin-dependent enzymes catalyzing essential metabolic reactions, but the cofactor cobalamin (vitamin B12) is only synthesized by a subset of bacteria and archaea. The biosynthesis of cobalamin is complex and energetically costly, making cobalamin variants and precursors metabolically valuable. Auxotrophs for these molecules have evolved uptake mechanisms to compensate for the lack of a synthesis pathway. Bacterial transport of cobalamin involves the passage over one or two lipidic membranes in Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, respectively. In higher eukaryotes, a complex system of carriers, receptors and transporters facilitates the delivery of the essential molecule to the tissues. Biochemical and genetic approaches have identified different transporter families involved in cobalamin transport. The majority of the characterized cobalamin transporters are active transport systems that belong to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily of transporters. In this chapter, we describe the different cobalamin transport systems characterized to date that are present in bacteria and humans, as well as yet-to-be-identified transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Nijland
- University of Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Jose M Martínez Felices
- University of Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Dirk J Slotboom
- University of Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, Groningen, Netherlands.
| | - Chancievan Thangaratnarajah
- University of Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, Membrane Enzymology Group, Groningen, Netherlands
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8
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Hamdoun A, Hellmich UA, Szakacs G, Kuchler K. The incredible diversity of structures and functions of ABC transporters. FEBS Lett 2021; 595:671-674. [PMID: 33754351 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amro Hamdoun
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Ute A Hellmich
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Cluster of Excellence 'Balance of the Microverse', Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Germany
| | - Gergely Szakacs
- Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Budapest, Hungary.,Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Karl Kuchler
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University Vienna, Austria
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9
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Khunweeraphong N, Kuchler K. Multidrug Resistance in Mammals and Fungi-From MDR to PDR: A Rocky Road from Atomic Structures to Transport Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4806. [PMID: 33946618 PMCID: PMC8124828 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) can be a serious complication for the treatment of cancer as well as for microbial and parasitic infections. Dysregulated overexpression of several members of the ATP-binding cassette transporter families have been intimately linked to MDR phenomena. Three paradigm ABC transporter members, ABCB1 (P-gp), ABCC1 (MRP1) and ABCG2 (BCRP) appear to act as brothers in arms in promoting or causing MDR in a variety of therapeutic cancer settings. However, their molecular mechanisms of action, the basis for their broad and overlapping substrate selectivity, remains ill-posed. The rapidly increasing numbers of high-resolution atomic structures from X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM of mammalian ABC multidrug transporters initiated a new era towards a better understanding of structure-function relationships, and for the dynamics and mechanisms driving their transport cycles. In addition, the atomic structures offered new evolutionary perspectives in cases where transport systems have been structurally conserved from bacteria to humans, including the pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) family in fungal pathogens for which high resolution structures are as yet unavailable. In this review, we will focus the discussion on comparative mechanisms of mammalian ABCG and fungal PDR transporters, owing to their close evolutionary relationships. In fact, the atomic structures of ABCG2 offer excellent models for a better understanding of fungal PDR transporters. Based on comparative structural models of ABCG transporters and fungal PDRs, we propose closely related or even conserved catalytic cycles, thus offering new therapeutic perspectives for preventing MDR in infectious disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karl Kuchler
- Center for Medical Biochemistry, Max Perutz Labs Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter, Medical University of Vienna, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9/2, A-1030 Vienna, Austria;
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The ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) Transport Systems in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Structure, Function, and Possible Targets for Therapeutics. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9120443. [PMID: 33291531 PMCID: PMC7761784 DOI: 10.3390/biology9120443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a bacterium of great medical importance because it causes tuberculosis, a disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Two important features are related to this bacterium: its ability to infect and survive inside the host, minimizing the immune response, and the burden of clinical isolates that are highly resistant to antibiotics treatment. These two phenomena are directly affected by cell envelope proteins, such as proteins from the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC transporters) superfamily. In this review, we have compiled information on all the M. tuberculosis ABC transporters described so far, both from a functional and structural point of view, and show their relevance for the bacillus and the potential targets for studies aiming to control the microorganism and structural features. Abstract Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), a disease that affects millions of people in the world and that is associated with several human diseases. The bacillus is highly adapted to infect and survive inside the host, mainly because of its cellular envelope plasticity, which can be modulated to adapt to an unfriendly host environment; to manipulate the host immune response; and to resist therapeutic treatment, increasing in this way the drug resistance of TB. The superfamily of ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters are integral membrane proteins that include both importers and exporters. Both types share a similar structural organization, yet only importers have a periplasmic substrate-binding domain, which is essential for substrate uptake and transport. ABC transporter-type importers play an important role in the bacillus physiology through the transport of several substrates that will interfere with nutrition, pathogenesis, and virulence. Equally relevant, exporters have been involved in cell detoxification, nutrient recycling, and antibiotics and drug efflux, largely affecting the survival and development of multiple drug-resistant strains. Here, we review known ABC transporters from M. tuberculosis, with particular focus on the diversity of their structural features and relevance in infection and drug resistance.
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