Automated De Novo Drug Design: Are We Nearly There Yet?

Medicinal chemistry and, in particular, drug design have often been perceived as more of an art than a science. The many unknowns of human disease and the sheer complexity of chemical space render decision making in medicinal chemistry exceptionally demanding. Computational models can assist the medicinal chemist in this endeavour. Provided here is an overview of recent examples of automated de novo molecular design, a discussion of the concepts and computational approaches involved, and the daring prediction of some of the possibilities and limitations of drug design using machine intelligence.

Structural biology and drug discovery

It has long been recognized that knowledge of the 3D structures of proteins has the potential to accelerate drug discovery, but recent developments in genome sequencing, robotics and bioinformatics have radically transformed the opportunities. Many new protein targets have been identified from genome analyses and studied by X-ray analysis or NMR spectroscopy. Structural biology has been instrumental in directing not only lead optimization and target identification, where it has well-established roles, but also lead discovery, now that high-throughput methods of structure determination can provide powerful approaches to screening.

Identification and mapping of small-molecule binding sites in proteins: computational tools for structure-based drug design

The number of protein structures is currently increasing at an impressive rate. The growing wealth of data calls for methods to efficiently exploit structural information for medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes. Given the three-dimensional (3D) structure of a validated protein target, the identification of functionally relevant binding sites and the analysis ('mapping') of these sites with respect to molecular recognition properties are important initial tasks in structure-based drug design. To address these tasks, a variety of computational tools have been developed. Approaches to identify binding pockets include geometric analyses of protein surfaces, comparisons of protein structures, similarity searches in databases of protein cavities, and docking scans to reveal areas of high ligand complementarity. In the context of binding-site analysis, powerful data mining tools help to retrieve experimental information about related protein-ligand complexes. To identify interaction hot spots, various potential functions and knowledge-based approaches are available for mapping binding regions. The results may subsequently be used to guide virtual screenings for new ligands via pharmacophore searches or docking simulations.

Synergy between combinatorial chemistry and de novo design

Traditional de novo design algorithms are able to generate many thousands of ligand structures that meet the constraints of a protein structure, but these structures are often not synthetically tractable. In this article, we describe how concepts from structure-based de novo design can be used to explore the search space in library design. A key feature of the approach is the requirement that specific templates are included within the designed structures. Each template corresponds to the "central core" of a combinatorial library. The template is positioned within an acyclic chain whose length and bond orders are systematically varied, and the conformational space of each structure that results (core plus chain) is explored to determine whether it is able to link together two or more strongly interacting functional groups or pharmacophores located within a protein binding site. This fragment connection algorithm provides "generic" 3D molecules in the sense that the linking part (minus the template) is built from an all-carbon chain whose synthesis may not be easily achieved. Thus, in the second phase, 2D queries are derived from the molecular skeletons and used to identify possible reagents from a database. Each potential reagent is checked to ensure that it is compatible with the conformation of its parent 3D conformation and the constraints of the binding site. Combinations of these reagents according to the combinatorial library reaction scheme give product molecules that contain the desired core template and the key functional/pharmacophoric groups, and would be able to adopt a conformation compatible with the original molecular skeleton without any unfavorable intermolecular or intramolecular interactions. We discuss how this strategy compares with and relates to alternative approaches to both structure-based library design and de novo design.

Docking of sulfonamides to carbonic anhydrase II and IV

Starting with a known active site of a protein and a database of compounds, one would like to quickly identify a few compounds that "dock" into the active site and obtain "good" binding free energies. The main goal of current automated docking procedures is to predict the "best" substrate-enzyme complex while other programs such as UHBD and DelPhi can be used to compute binding free energies. In this paper, we will focus on the application of docking methods and parameters to study substrate-enzyme interactions of a metalloenzyme system. Specifically, we report on the docking of sulfonamides to carbonic anhydrase II and IV, which are of interest due to their application in glaucoma therapy. Using a standard docking protocol, it is possible to correctly predict not only the orientation of inhibitors to a specific isozyme, but also determine the qualitative affinity for a group of inhibitor for an isozyme.

Automated docking of ligands to antibodies: methods and applications

Many approaches to studying protein-ligand interactions by computational docking are currently available. Given the structures of a protein and a ligand, the ultimate goal of all docking methods is to predict the structure of the resulting complex. This requires a suitable representation of molecular structures and properties, search algorithms to efficiently scan the configuration space for favorable interaction geometries, and accurate scoring functions to evaluate and rank the generated orientations. For many of the available methods, tests on experimentally known antibody-antigen or antibody-hapten complexes have appeared in the literature. In addition, some of them have been used in predictive studies on antibody-ligand interactions to provide structural insights where adequate experimental information is missing. The AutoDock program is presented as example of a method for flexibly docking ligands to antibodies. Applying parameters of the second-generation AMBER force field, three antibody-hapten complexes (AN02, DB3, NC6.8) are used as new test cases to analyze the ability of the method to reproduce experimental findings. The X-ray structures could be reconstituted and the corresponding solutions were ranked with best energy score in all cases. Docking to the free instead of the complexed NC6.8 structure indicated the limits of the rigid protein treatment, although fairly good guesses about the location of the binding site and the contact residues could still be obtained if conformational flexibility was allowed at least in the ligand.

NMR screening in drug discovery

NMR methods in drug discovery have traditionally been used to obtain structural information for drug targets or target-ligand complexes. Recently, it has been shown that NMR may be used as an alternative approach for identification of ligands that bind to protein drug targets, shifting the emphasis of many NMR laboratories towards screening and design of potential drug molecules, rather than structural characterization.