Detoxification of cyanide by plants and hormone action

Purification and biochemical characterization of a β-cyanoalanine synthase expressed in germinating seeds of Sorghum bicolor (L.) moench

Background

β-Cyanoalanine synthase plays essential roles in germinating seeds, such as in cyanide homeostasis.

Methods

β-Cyanoalanine synthase was isolated from sorghum seeds, purified using chromatographic techniques and its biochemical and catalytic properties were determined.

Results

The purified enzyme had a yield of 61.74% and specific activity of 577.50 nmol H2S/min/mg of protein. The apparent and subunit molecular weight for purified β-cyanoalanine synthase were 58.26±2.41 kDa and 63.4 kDa, respectively. The kinetic parameters with sodium cyanide as substrate were 0.67±0.08 mM, 17.60±0.50 nmol H2S/mL/min, 2.97×10−1 s−1 and 4.43×102 M−1 s−1 for KM, Vmax, kcat and kcat/KM, respectively. With L-cysteine as substrate, the kinetic parameters were 2.64±0.37 mM, 63.41±4.04 nmol H2S/mL/min, 10.71×10−1 s−1 and 4.06×102 M−1 s−1 for KM, Vmax, kcat and kcat/KM, respectively. The optimum temperature and pH for activity were 35°C and 8.5, respectively. The enzyme retained more than half of its activity at 40°C. Inhibitors such as HgCl2, EDTA, glycine and iodoacetamide reduced enzyme activity.

Conclusion

The biochemical properties of β-cyanoalanine synthase in germinating sorghum seeds highlights its roles in maintaining cyanide homeostasis.

Effects of available nitrogen on the uptake and assimilation of ferrocyanide and ferricyanide complexes in weeping willows

The effects of different levels of external nitrogen on the uptake, distribution and assimilation of iron cyanide complexes were investigated. Pre-rooted weeping willows (Salix babylonica L.) were grown in a hydroponic solution with or without nitrogen and amended with potassium ferrocyanide or potassium ferricyanide at 25.0 +/- 0.5 degrees C for 144 h. Faster uptake of ferrocyanide than ferricyanide was observed in willows grown in the deionized water. Negligible difference in the removal rate between the two chemicals was detected for willows grown in nutrient solutions with or without amendment of nitrogen. The volatilization of ferro- and ferricyanide due to transpiration through plant aerial tissues was below detection level. Less then 20% of the ferrocyanide or ferricyanide taken up from the N-free nutrient solution was recovered in the biomass and majority was accumulated in the roots. In contrast, less than 9.0% of both iron cyanide complexes taken up was detected in the plant materials of willows grown in the N-containing nutrient solution and roots were the major sites for accumulation of both chemicals. A large fraction of the ferro- and ferricyanide taken up from the hydroponic solution was assimilated during the transport within plant materials. Willows grown in the N-containing nutrient solution showed a higher assimilation potential for both chemical forms than those grown in the N-free nutrient solution in general. The information collectively suggests that uptake and assimilation mechanisms for ferro- and ferricyanide are largely different in willows; the strength of external nitrogen had a negligible effect on the uptake of both chemicals, while assimilation of ferro- and ferricyanide in plant materials was strongly related to the presence of easily available nitrogen in the hydroponic solution.

Uptake, metabolism, accumulation and toxicity of cyanide in Willow trees

Chemicals taken up into plants may be accumulated so leading to toxic effects. Uptake and phytotoxicity of free cyanide was determined with the willow-tree transpiration test. Willow sets were grown in sand and irrigated with varying levels of cyanide (CN). Toxicity was determined by measuring transpiration. At CN concentrations below 10 mg/L, no toxic effects were observed. At 20 mg/L, transpiration was reduced to approximately 50% after 96 h. With 30, 40 and 50 mg/L, the transpiration decreased with a similar rate to < 20% of the initial transpiration within 96 h. Accumulation of cyanide in plant tissue was observed at 40 and 50 mg/L. The kinetics of metabolism of cyanide by roots, stems and leaves of willows was determined by the closed-bottle metabolism test. The Michaelis-Menten parameters v(max) and K(M)(maximal metabolic velocity and half-saturation constant, respectively) were determined by nonlinear regression. Estimates of uptake and metabolism were balanced using a nonlinear mathematical model. The model predicted that at low doses (<10 mg/L), the cyanide would be rapidly metabolized. At higher doses, uptake would be faster than metabolism and consequently cyanide would accumulate in the plant tissue. This relation between external dose and internal accumulation is nonlinear and explains the toxic effects observed.

Metabolism of cyanide by Chinese vegetation

Cyanide is a high-volume production chemical and the most commonly used leaching reagent for gold and silver extraction. Its environmental behavior and fate is of significant concern because it is a highly toxic compound. Vascular plants possess an enzyme system that detoxifies cyanide by converting it to the amino acid asparagine. This paper presents an investigation of the potential of Chinese vegetation to degrade cyanide. Detached leaves (1.5 g fresh weight) from 28 species of 23 families were kept in glass vessel with 100 ml of aqueous solution spiked with potassium cyanide at 23.5 degrees C for 28 h. Cyanide concentrations ranged from 0.83 to 1.0 CN mg l(-1). The disappearance of cyanide from the aqueous solution was analyzed spectrophotometrically. The fastest cyanide removal was by Chinese elder, Sambucus chinensis, with a removal capacity of 8.8 mg CN kg(-1) h(-1), followed by upright hedge-parsley (Torilis japonica) with a value of 7.5 mg CN kg(-1) h(-1). The lowest removal capacity had the snow-pine tree (Credrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud). Results from this investigation indicated that a wide range of plant species is able to efficiently metabolize cyanide. Therefore, cyanide elimination with plants seems to be a feasible option for cleaning soils and water contaminated by cyanide from gold and silver mines or from other sources.