How Inspecting a Picture Affects Processing of Text in Multimedia Learning

Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load

According to cognitive load theory, learning can only be successful when instructional materials and procedures are designed in accordance with human cognitive architecture. In this context, one of the biggest challenges is the accurate measurement of the different cognitive load types as these are associated with various activities during learning. Building on psychometric limitations of currently available questionnaires, a new instrument for measuring the three types of cognitive load—intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load—is developed and validated relying on a set of five empirical studies. In Study 1, a principal component analysis revealed a three-component model which was subsequently confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Finally, across three experiments (Studies 3–5), the questionnaire was shown to be sensitive to changes in cognitive load supporting its predictive validity. The quality of the cognitive load questionnaire was underlined by satisfactory internal consistencies across all studies. In sum, the proposed questionnaire can be used in experimental settings to measure the different types of cognitive load in a valid and reliable manner. The construction and validation process of the questionnaire has also shown that the construct germane cognitive load remains controversial concerning its measurement and theoretical embedding in cognitive load theory.

Augmented Reality for Presenting Real-Time Data During Students' Laboratory Work: Comparing a Head-Mounted Display With a Separate Display

Multimedia learning theories suggest presenting associated pieces of information in spatial and temporal contiguity. New technologies like Augmented Reality allow for realizing these principles in science laboratory courses by presenting virtual real-time information during hands-on experimentation. Spatial integration can be achieved by pinning virtual representations of measurement data to corresponding real components. In the present study, an Augmented Reality-based presentation format was realized via a head-mounted display and contrasted to a separate display, which provided a well-arranged data matrix in spatial distance to the real components and was therefore expected to result in a spatial split-attention effect. Two groups of engineering students (N = 107; Augmented Reality vs. separate display) performed six experiments exploring fundamental laws of electric circuits. Cognitive load and conceptual knowledge acquisition were assessed as main outcome variables. In contrast to our hypotheses and previous findings, the Augmented Reality group did not report lower extraneous load and the separate display group showed higher learning gains. The pre- and posttest assessing conceptual knowledge were monitored by eye tracking. Results indicate that the condition affected the visual relevancy of circuit diagrams to final problem completion. The unexpected reverse effects could be traced back to emphasizing coherence formation processes regarding multiple measurements.

Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? Evaluating the Design of Instructional Animations in Veterinary Education

Empirical evidence demonstrates that student learning outcomes improve when animations are developed in alignment with the design principles of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML). The extent to which these principles are used in the design of veterinary instructional animations is unknown. In this study, we reviewed the veterinary education literature for articles that discussed specific veterinary medical animations as learning resources. The 30 referenced animations accessed through this search were analyzed to determine whether they used the CTML's 11 major design principles. Analysis revealed that the animations most commonly adhered to only 4 principles: coherence, redundancy, modality, and spatial contiguity. The majority of the 11 CTML principles were used in fewer than 40% of the animations. We also examined the alignment between raters' perceptions of the effectiveness and enjoyment of the animations and adherence to the design principles. Analyses revealed that the animations deemed by raters as most enjoyable and effective did not utilize more design principles than animations they viewed as least enjoyable and effective. The results of this study indicate many missed opportunities to increase learning by developing animated learning resources according to empirically based design principles. Decisions to include specific animations in instruction should be based on whether the resources include elements that have been shown to increase learning rather than subjective perceptions of effectiveness and enjoyment.

Reading a Story: Different Degrees of Learning in Different Learning Environments

The learning environment in which material is acquired may produce differences in delayed recall and in the elements that individuals focus on. These differences may appear even during development. In the present study, we compared three different learning environments in 450 normally developing 7-year-old children subdivided into three groups according to the type of learning environment. Specifically, children were asked to learn the same material shown in three different learning environments: reading illustrated books (TB); interacting with the same text displayed on a PC monitor and enriched with interactive activities (PC-IA); reading the same text on a PC monitor but not enriched with interactive narratives (PC-NoIA). Our results demonstrated that TB and PC-NoIA elicited better verbal memory recall. In contrast, PC-IA and PC-NoIA produced higher scores for visuo-spatial memory, enhancing memory for spatial relations, positions and colors with respect to TB. Interestingly, only TB seemed to produce a deeper comprehension of the story's moral. Our results indicated that PC-IA offered a different type of learning that favored visual details. In this sense, interactive activities demonstrate certain limitations, probably due to information overabundance, emotional mobilization, emphasis on images and effort exerted in interactive activities. Thus, interactive activities, although entertaining, act as disruptive elements which interfere with verbal memory and deep moral comprehension.

Lernen mit Texten und Bildern

Zusammenfassung. Das Lernen mit Texten und Bildern (Multimedia) bildet einen wesentlichen Gegenstandsbereich der empirischen Lehr-Lernforschung. Kognitive Theorien des Lernens mit Multimedia fokussieren vor dem Hintergrund des Dreispeichermodells des Gedächtnisses auf die beim Lernen mit Multimedia ablaufenden Informationsverarbeitungsprozesse, von denen angenommen wird, dass diese zunächst in für Text und Bild spezifischen Gedächtnisrepräsentationen resultieren. Dabei wird das Wechselspiel bei der Verarbeitung von Text und Bild und dessen zentrale Rolle für den Aufbau einer Verständnis-basierten mentalen Repräsentation eher vernachlässigt. Im vorliegenden Beitrag skizzieren wir zunächst Befunde unserer Arbeitsgruppe, die für eine stärkere Abhängigkeit von Text- und Bildverarbeitung beim Aufbau eines mentalen Modells sprechen. Darauf aufbauend werden pädagogisch-psychologische Implikationen dieser Forschung beschrieben und mit weiteren empirischen Befunden untermauert. Abschließend wird eine theoretische Perspektive, die stärker durch Modelle des Textverstehens als durch Gedächtnistheorien geprägt ist, für das Lernen mit Multimedia diskutiert.