Fundamental relationships of executive functions and physiological abilities with game intelligence, game time and injuries in elite soccer players

The model of the brain as a complex system: Interactions of physical, neural and mental states with neurocognitive functions

The isolated approaching of physical, neural and mental states and the binary classification into stable traits and fluctuating states previously lead to a limited understanding concerning underlying processes and possibilities to explain, measure and regulate neural and mental performance along with the interaction of mental states and neurocognitive traits. In this article these states are integrated by i) differentiating the model of the brain as a complex, self-organizing system, ii) showing possibilities to measure this model, iii) offering a classification of mental states and iv) presenting a holistic operationalization of state regulations and trait trainings to enhance neural and mental high-performance on a macro- and micro scale. This model integrates current findings from the theory of constructed emotions, the theory of thousand brains and complex systems theory and yields several testable hypotheses to provide an integrated reference frame for future research and applied target points to regulate and enhance performance.

Validity of a motor-cognitive dual-task agility test in elite youth football players

Agility, as the ability to react rapidly to unforeseen events, is an essential component of football performance. However, existing agility diagnostics often do not reflect the complex motor-cognitive interaction required on the field. Therefore, this study evaluates the criterion and ecological validity of a newly developed motor-cognitive dual-task agility approach in elite youth football players and compare it to a traditional reactive agility test. Twenty-one male youth elite football players (age:17.4 ±0 .6; BMI:23.2 ± 1.8) performed two agility tests (reactive agility, reactive agility with integrated multiple-object-tracking (Dual-Task Agility)) on the SKILLCOURT system. Performance was correlated to motor (sprint, jump), cognitive (executive functions, attention, reaction speed) and football specific tests (Loughborough soccer passing test (LSPT)) as well as indirect game metrics (coaches' rating, playing time). Reactive agility performance showed moderate correlations to attention and choice reaction times (r = 0.48-0.63), as well as to the LSPT (r = 0.51). The dual-task agility test revealed moderate relationships with attention and reaction speed (r = 0.47-0.58), executive functions (r = 0.45-0.63), as well as the game metrics (r = 0.51-0.61). Finally, the dual-task agility test significantly differentiated players based on their coaches' rating and playing time using a median split (p < 0.05; d = 0.8-1.28). Motor-cognitive agility performance in elite youth football players seems to be primarily determined by cognitive functions. The integration of multiple object tracking into reactive agility testing seems to be an ecologically valid approach for performance diagnostics in youth football.

Effects of Psychological Interventions on Performance Anxiety in Performing Artists and Athletes: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Levels of state and trait anxiety are relevant for performing artists and professional athletes to obtain optimal performance outcomes. However, evidence-based knowledge regarding the effectiveness of psychological interventions on performance anxiety is currently minimal. Thus, the objective of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to characterize, aggregate, and quantify intervention effects on measures of state and trait performance anxiety in performing artists and professional athletes. A systematic search of the literature according to the PRISMA guidelines was conducted on the databases PubMed, Medline, SPORTDiscus, PsycInfo, Embase, and Web of Science from 1 January 1960 to 9 November 2022. The search only included controlled studies employing pre-post measures and excluded performing arts fields that do not depend on fine motor skills. Initially, 1022 articles were identified; after removing duplicates and assessing abstracts and full texts, 20 articles were used to calculate weighted standardized mean differences (SMDs). In terms of state performance anxiety, our results revealed a large overall effect (SMD = 0.88), a medium effect (SMD = 0.62) for studies using scales with total scores (i.e., MPAI-A, STAI), and large effects (cognitive anxiety: SMD = 0.93, somatic anxiety: SMD = 0.92, self-confidence: SMD = 0.97) for studies applying scales with sub-scores (i.e., CSAI-2R)-all in favour of the intervention groups. Regarding trait performance anxiety (e.g., SCAT), we detected a small effect (SMD = 0.32), also favouring the intervention groups. Interventions to reduce performance anxiety in performing artists and professional athletes revealed varying levels of effectiveness ranging from small (trait) to large (state). Therefore, future studies should investigate modalities to increase intervention efficacy, especially for the small-sized changes in trait performance anxiety.

Is there a relationship between executive functions and resilience in youth elite soccer players?

BACKGROUND

While the relationship between cognitive performance and sport performance in youth elite soccer players has proponents as well as opponents, many aspects of this relationship remain unclear. Therefore, this quasi-experimental study wants to contribute to this relationship including the psychological aspect of resilience when investigating youth elite soccer players during an assessment selection for a representative team.

METHODS

Questionnaires as well as computer-based tests were conducted.

RESULTS

Results of this study showed no relationship between resilience and executive function in youth elite soccer players. Furthermore, no differences in executive functions or in resilience were found between those players who are selected for a representative team and those who were not selected.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that further research needs to be conducted to clarify possible relationships in more detail.

The Influence of Acute Sprint Interval Training on the Cognitive Performance of Male Basketball Players: An Investigation of Expertise-Related Differences

Highly developed cognitive abilities are an important prerequisite for reaching elite athletic levels. This study aimed to investigate the effect of an acute sprint interval training (SIT) session on the cognitive performance of amateur and elite players. Eighteen amateur and ten elite male basketball players were included in this study. They were asked to perform an acute SIT consisting of the Wingate Test (i.e., four bouts of 30 s all-out sprints) on a cycle ergometer, interspersed with 4 min of active recovery. Before and after the acute SIT, three cognitive tests (i.e., Change Detection Test, Timewall Test, Mackworth Clock Test) were performed. Exercise-induced changes in cognitive performance and between-group differences were analyzed. We did not observe significant between-group differences in the performance of any cognitive test at the pretest, but elite basketball players outperformed the amateur players in specific measures of the Change Detection Test and Timewall Test after the acute SIT (p < 0.05). In addition, for the Clock Test, only the elite basketball players' performance improved from pre- to posttest. The current study's findings suggest that male elite basketball players, compared to amateur basketball players, can preserve their cognitive performance after an acute bout of SIT.

An assist for cognitive diagnostics in soccer (Part II): Development and validation of a task to measure working memory in a soccer-specific setting

Cognitive diagnostics is of increasing interest to researchers and practitioners in the context of talent identification and performance enhancement in professional soccer. Research addressing the relevance of cognitive skills for sports performance has been based on the cognitive component approach (i.e., general cognitive processes) and the expert performance approach (i.e., sport-specific cognitive processes). Following the aim to combine the strengths of both approaches, we have previously developed and validated tasks to measure inhibition and cognitive flexibility in a soccer-specific setting, including a soccer-specific motor response. In line with the broad consistency on three core executive functions, this further development of diagnosing executive functions is to be completed with a task for the assessment of working memory. For this purpose, 60 amateur players with a soccer experience of at least one competitive season (M _age = 25.95, SD _age = 4.59) first conducted a computer-based version of the n-back (3-back) task followed by a 3-back task that required a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass) performed in a soccer-specific setting (i.e., SoccerBot100). Results show good reliability for both tasks. With regard to convergent validity, significant correlations between the computerized and soccer-specific task could be determined in target trials for response time (r = 0.446) and accuracy (r = 0.401). Thus, the soccer-specific n-back task can be considered a potentially valid instrument for assessing working memory and potentially allows soccer clubs to diagnose the three core executive functions in a consistent soccer-specific setting.

Specific relations of visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players

Visual and cognitive skills are key to successful functioning in highly demanding settings such as elite sports. However, their mutual influence and interdependencies are not sufficiently understood yet. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players. Fifty-nine male elite soccer players (age: 18–34 years) performed tests assessing visual clarity (left-, right-, and both eyes), contrast sensitivity, near-far quickness, and hand-eye coordination. Executive function measures included working memory capacity, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and selective attention. Overall, visual abilities were largely correlated with executive functions. Near-far quickness performance showed a large correlation with an executive function total score as well as with cognitive flexibility, working memory, and especially selective attention. Visual clarity and contrast sensitivity were moderately correlated with the cognition total score. Most consistent correlations with the visual functions were present for working memory. These findings present an overall vision-cognition relationship but also very specific linkages among subcategories of these functions, especially meaningful relations between near-far quickness, selective attention and cognitive flexibility. Further studies are needed to investigate the neuropsychological mechanisms accounting for the correlations and possible improvements of the executive functions by training specific visual skills.