Nanoporous semiconductors synthesized through polymer templating of ligand-stripped CdSe nanocrystals

Functionalization of Mesoporous Semiconductor Metal Oxides for Gas Sensing: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges

With the emerging of the Internet of Things, chemiresistive gas sensors have been extensively applied in industrial production, food safety, medical diagnosis, and environment detection, etc. Considerable efforts have been devoted to improving the gas-sensing performance through tailoring the structure, functions, defects and electrical conductivity of sensitive materials. Among the numerous sensitive materials, mesoporous semiconductor metal oxides possess unparalleled properties, including tunable pore size, high specific surface area, abundant metal-oxygen bonds, and rapid mass transfer/diffusion behavior (Knudsen diffusion), which have been regarded as the most potential sensitive materials. Herein, the synthesis strategies for mesoporous metal oxides are overviewed, the classical functionalization techniques of sensitive materials are also systemically summarized as a highlight, including construction of mesoporous structure, regulation of micro-nano structure (i.e., heterojunctions), noble metal sensitization (e.g., Au, Pt, Ag, Pd) and heteroatomic doping (e.g., C, N, Si, S). In addition, the structure-function relationship of sensitive materials has been discussed at molecular-atomic level, especially for the chemical sensitization effect, elucidating the interface adsorption/catalytic mechanism. Moreover, the challenges and perspectives are proposed, which will open a new door for the development of intelligent gas sensor in various applications.

Ligand-Free Direct Optical Lithography of Bare Colloidal Nanocrystals via Photo-Oxidation of Surface Ions with Porosity Control

Microscale patterning of colloidal nanocrystal (NC) films is important for their integration in devices. Here, we introduce the direct optical patterning of all-inorganic NCs without the use of additional photosensitive ligands or additives. We determined that photoexposure of ligand-stripped, "bare" NCs in air significantly reduces their solubility in polar solvents due to photo-oxidation of surface ions. Doses as low as 20 mJ/cm² could be used; the only obvious criterion for material selection is that the NCs need to have significant absorption at the irradiation wavelength. However, transparent NCs can still be patterned by mixing them with suitably absorbing NCs. This approach enabled the patterning of bare ZnSe, CdSe, ZnS, InP, CeO₂, CdSe/CdS, and CdSe/ZnS NCs as well as mixtures of ZrO₂ or HfO₂ NCs with ZnSe NCs. Optical, X-ray photoelectron, and infrared spectroscopies show that solubility loss results from desorption of bound solvent due to photo-oxidation of surface ions. We also demonstrate two approaches, compatible with our patterning method, for modulating the porosity and refractive index of NC films. Block copolymer templating decreases the film density, and thus the refractive index, by introducing mesoporosity. Alternatively, hot isostatic pressing increases the packing density and refractive index of NC layers. For example, the packing fraction of a ZnS NC film can be increased from 0.51 to 0.87 upon hot isostatic pressing at 450 °C and 15 000 psi. Our findings demonstrate that direct lithography by photo-oxidation of bare NC surfaces is an accessible patterning method for facilitating the exploration of more complex NC device architectures while eliminating the influence of bulky or insulating surfactants.

Recent advances in amphiphilic block copolymer templated mesoporous metal-based materials: assembly engineering and applications

Mesoporous metal-based materials (MMBMs) have received unprecedented attention in catalysis, sensing, and energy storage and conversion owing to their unique electronic structures, uniform mesopore size and high specific surface area. In the last decade, great progress has been made in the design and application of MMBMs; in particular, many novel assembly engineering methods and strategies based on amphiphilic block copolymers as structure-directing agents have also been developed for the "bottom-up" construction of a variety of MMBMs. Development of MMBMs is therefore of significant importance from both academic and practical points of view. In this review, we provide a systematic elaboration of the molecular assembly methods and strategies for MMBMs, such as tuning the driving force between amphiphilic block copolymers and various precursors (i.e., metal salts, nanoparticles/clusters and polyoxometalates) for pore characteristics and physicochemical properties. The structure-performance relationship of MMBMs (e.g., pore size, surface area, crystallinity and crystal structure) based on various spectroscopy analysis techniques and density functional theory (DFT) calculation is discussed and the influence of the surface/interfacial properties of MMBMs (e.g., active surfaces, heterojunctions, binding sites and acid-base properties) in various applications is also included. The prospect of accurately designing functional mesoporous materials and future research directions in the field of MMBMs is pointed out in this review, and it will open a new avenue for the inorganic-organic assembly in various fields.

Cucurbituril-mediated quantum dot aggregates formed by aqueous self-assembly for sensing applications

Supramolecular ‘gluing’ of quantum dots is demonstrated with cucurbituril and we present the opportunity to create molecular host–guest sensing schemes.

Template-Free Mesoporous Electrochromic Films on Flexible Substrates from Tungsten Oxide Nanorods

Low-temperature processed mesoporous nanocrystal thin films are platforms for fabricating functional composite thin films on flexible substrates. Using a random arrangement of anisotropic nanocrystals can be a facile solution to generate pores without templates. However, the tendency for anisotropic particles to spontaneously assemble into a compact structure must be overcome. Here, we present a method to achieve random networking of nanorods during solution phase deposition by switching their ligand-stabilized colloidal nature into a charge-stabilized nature by a ligand-stripping chemistry. Ligand-stripped tungsten suboxide (WO_2.72) nanorods result in uniform mesoporous thin films owing to repulsive electrostatic forces preventing nanorods from densely packing. Porosity and pore size distribution of thin films are controlled by changing the aspect ratio of the nanorods. This template-free mesoporous structure, achieved without annealing, provides a framework for introducing guest components, therefore enabling our fabrication of inorganic nanocomposite electrochromic films on flexible substrates. Following infilling of niobium polyoxometalate clusters into pores and successive chemical condensation, a WO_x-NbO_x composite film is produced that selectively controls visible and near-infrared light transmittance without any annealing required. The composite shows rapid switching kinetics and can be stably cycled between optical states over 2000 times. This simple strategy of using anisotropic nanocrystals gives insight into mesoporous thin film fabrication with broader applications for flexible devices.

Mesoporous Silica Thin Membranes with Large Vertical Mesochannels for Nanosize-Based Separation

Membrane separation technologies are of great interest in industrial processes such as water purification, gas separation, and materials synthesis. However, commercial filtration membranes have broad pore size distributions, leading to poor size cutoff properties. In this work, mesoporous silica thin membranes with uniform and large vertical mesochannels are synthesized via a simple biphase stratification growth method, which possess an intact structure over centimeter size, ultrathin thickness (≤50 nm), high surface areas (up to 1420 m² g^-1 ), and tunable pore sizes from ≈2.8 to 11.8 nm by adjusting the micelle parameters. The nanofilter devices based on the free-standing mesoporous silica thin membranes show excellent performances in separating differently sized gold nanoparticles (>91.8%) and proteins (>93.1%) due to the uniform pore channels. This work paves a promising way to develop new membranes with well-defined pore diameters for highly efficient nanosize-based separation at the macroscale.

Nearest-neighbour nanocrystal bonding dictates framework stability or collapse in colloidal nanocrystal frameworks

Block copolymers serve as architecture-directing agents for the assembly of colloidal nanocrystals into a variety of mesoporous solids. Here we report the fundamental order-disorder transition in such assemblies, which yield, on one hand, ordered colloidal nanocrystals frameworks or, alternatively, disordered mesoporous nanocrystal films. Our determination of the order-disorder transition is based on extensive image analysis of films after thermal processing. The number of nearest-nanocrystal neighbours emerges as a critical parameter dictating assembly outcomes, which is in turn determined by the nanocrystal volume fraction (f_NC). We also identify the minimum f_NC needed to support the structure against collapse.

Mesoporous LixMn2O4 Thin Film Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Pseudocapacitors

Charge storage devices with high energy density and enhanced rate capabilities are highly sought after in today's mobile world. Although several high-rate pseudocapacitive anode materials have been reported, cathode materials operating in a high potential range versus lithium metal are much less common. Here, we present a nanostructured version of the well-known cathode material, LiMn2O4. The reduction in lithium-ion diffusion lengths and improvement in rate capabilities is realized through a combination of nanocrystallinity and the formation of a 3-D porous framework. Materials were fabricated from nanoporous Mn3O4 films made by block copolymer templating of preformed nanocrystals. The nanoporous Mn3O4 was then converted via solid-state reaction with LiOH to nanoporous LixMn2O4 (1 < x < 2). The resulting films had a wall thickness of ∼15 nm, which is small enough to be impacted by inactive surface sites. As a consequence, capacity was reduced by about half compared to bulk LiMn2O4, but both charge and discharge kinetics as well as cycling stability were improved significantly. Kinetic analysis of the redox reactions was used to verify the pseudocapacitive mechanisms of charge storage and establish the feasibility of using nanoporous LixMn2O4 as a cathode in lithium-ion devices based on pseudocapacitive charge storage.

Nanomanufacturing: A Perspective

Nanomanufacturing, the commercially scalable and economically sustainable mass production of nanoscale materials and devices, represents the tangible outcome of the nanotechnology revolution. In contrast to those used in nanofabrication for research purposes, nanomanufacturing processes must satisfy the additional constraints of cost, throughput, and time to market. Taking silicon integrated circuit manufacturing as a baseline, we consider the factors involved in matching processes with products, examining the characteristics and potential of top-down and bottom-up processes, and their combination. We also discuss how a careful assessment of the way in which function can be made to follow form can enable high-volume manufacturing of nanoscale structures with the desired useful, and exciting, properties.

Colloidal Nanocrystal Frameworks

Colloidal nanocrystal frameworks (CNFs) are a modular class of mesostructured porous materials, which are assembled from pre-formed nanocrystal building units using suitably designed block copolymer architecture-directing agents. The functional attributes of these frameworks are determined both by the physiochemical characteristics of the nanocrystal components as well as their ordered arrangements in space. It is noteworthy that their assembly schemes are readily amenable to more than one type of framework component, yielding a multivariate landscape to navigate mesoscale phenomena arising from the coupled interactions of different nanocrystals within the framework. Early reports indicate surprisingly efficient propagation of both matter and energy within and along the surfaces of these frameworks, although there remains much to be learned about the origins of their structural, electronic, and dynamic properties, and how they feed back across multiple length and time scales.

Template-directed assembly of metal-chalcogenide nanocrystals into ordered mesoporous networks

Although great progress in the synthesis of porous networks of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles with highly accessible pore surface and ordered mesoscale pores has been achieved, synthesis of assembled 3D mesostructures of metal-chalcogenide nanocrystals is still challenging. In this work we demonstrate that ordered mesoporous networks, which comprise well-defined interconnected metal sulfide nanocrystals, can be prepared through a polymer-templated oxidative polymerization process. The resulting self-assembled mesostructures that were obtained after solvent extraction of the polymer template impart the unique combination of light-emitting metal chalcogenide nanocrystals, three-dimensional open-pore structure, high surface area, and uniform pores. We show that the pore surface of these materials is active and accessible to incoming molecules, exhibiting high photocatalytic activity and stability, for instance, in oxidation of 1-phenylethanol into acetophenone. We demonstrate through appropriate selection of the synthetic components that this method is general to prepare ordered mesoporous materials from metal chalcogenide nanocrystals with various sizes and compositions.

Constructing functional mesostructured materials from colloidal nanocrystal building blocks

Through synthesizing colloidal nanocrystals (NCs) in the organic phase, chemists gain fine control over their composition, size, and shape. Strategies for arranging them into ordered superlattices have followed closely behind synthetic advances. Nonetheless, the same hydrophobic ligands that help their assembly also severely limit interactions between adjacent nanocrystals. As a result, examples of nanocrystal-based materials whose functionality derives from their mesoscale structure have lagged well behind advances in synthesis and assembly. In this Account, we describe how recent insights into NC surface chemistry have fueled dramatic progress in functional mesostructures. In these constructs, intimate contact between NCs as well as with heterogeneous components is key in determining macroscopic behavior. The simplest mesoscale assemblies we consider are networks of NCs constructed by in situ replacement of their bulky, insulating surface ligands with small molecules. Transistors are a test bed for understanding conductivity, setting the stage for new functionality. For instance, we demonstrated that by electrochemically charging and discharging networks of plasmonic metal oxide NCs, the transmittance of near infrared light can be strongly and reversibly modulated. When we assemble NCs with heterogeneous components, there is an even greater potential for generating complex functionality. Nanocomposites can exhibit favorable characteristics of their component materials, yet the interaction between components can also have a strong influence. Realizing such opportunities requires an intimate linking of embedded NCs to the surrounding matrix phase. We accomplish this link by coordinating inorganic anionic clusters directly to NC surfaces. By exploiting this connection, we found enhanced ionic conductivity in Ag2S-in-GeS2 nanocrystal-in-glass electrodes. In another example, we also found enhanced optical contrast when linking electrochromic niobium oxide to embedded tin-doped indium oxide (ITO) NCs. These dramatic effects emerge from reconstruction of the inorganic glass immediately adjacent to the NC interface. When co-assembling NCs with block copolymers, direct coordination of the polymer to NC surfaces again opens new opportunities for functional mesoscale constructs. We strip NCs of their native ligands and design block copolymers containing a NC tethering domain that bonds strongly, yet dynamically, to the resulting open coordination sites. This strategy enables their co-assembly at high volume fractions of NCs and leads to well-ordered mesoporous NC networks. We find these architectures to be exceptionally stable under chemical transformations driven by cation insertion, removal, and exchange. These developments offer a modular toolbox for arranging NCs deliberately with respect to heterogeneous elements and open space. We have control over metrics that define such architectures from the atomic scale (bonding and crystal structure) through the mesoscale (crystallite shapes and sizes and pore dimensions). By tuning these parameters and better understanding the interactions between components, we look forward to boundless opportunities to employ mesoscale structure, in tandem with composition, to develop functional materials.