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Liu L, Zhang M, Lu Y, Chen G, Lu B, Ge L, Lu Z, Sun D, Xu Z. Microstructure-dependent CO 2-responsive microemulsions for deep-cleaning of oil-contaminated soils. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 350:140928. [PMID: 38092174 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
CO2-responsive microemulsion (ME) is considered a promising candidate for deep-cleaning and oil recovery from oil-contaminated soils. Understanding the responsive nature of different microstructures (i.e., oil-in-water (O/W), bicontinuous (B.C.) and water-in-oil (W/O)) is essential for unlocking the potential and mechanisms of CO2-responsive emulsions in complex multiphase systems and providing comprehensive guidance for remediation of oil-contaminated soils. Herein, the responsiveness of microstructures of ME to CO2 trigger was investigated using experimental designs and coarse-grained molecular dynamic simulations. MEs were formed for the first time by a weakly associated pseudo-Gemini surfactant of indigenous organic acids (naphthenic acids, NAs are a class of natural surface-active molecules in crude oil) and tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) through fine tuning of co-solvent of dodecyl benzene sulfonic acid (DBSA) and butanol. The O/W ME exhibited an optimal CO2-responsive character due to easier proton migration in the continuous aqueous phase and more pronounced dependence of configuration on deprotonated NA ions. Conversely, the ME with W/O microstructure exhibited a weak to none responsive characteristic, most likely attributed to its high viscosity and strong oil-NA interactions. The O/W ME also showed superior cleaning efficiency and oil recovery from oil-contaminated soils. The results from this study provide insights for the design of CO2-responsive MEs with desired performance and guidance for choosing the favorable operating conditions in various industrial applications, such as oily solid waste treatment, enhanced oil recovery (EOR), and pipeline transportation. The insights from this work allow more efficient and tailored design of switchable MEs for manufacturing advanced responsive materials in various industrial sectors and formulation of household products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingfei Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China; Key University Laboratory of Highly Efficient Utilization of Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of Guangdong, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Mingshan Zhang
- School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Yi Lu
- Bioproducts Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Gaojian Chen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Binda Lu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China; Key University Laboratory of Highly Efficient Utilization of Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of Guangdong, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Lingling Ge
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Zhouguang Lu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China; Key University Laboratory of Highly Efficient Utilization of Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of Guangdong, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Dejun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Shandong University, Ministry of Education, Jinan, Shandong, 250100, China
| | - Zhenghe Xu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China; Key University Laboratory of Highly Efficient Utilization of Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of Guangdong, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
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Dowlati S, Mokhtari R, Hohl L, Miller R, Kraume M. Advances in CO 2-switchable surfactants towards the fabrication and application of responsive colloids. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 315:102907. [PMID: 37086624 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2023.102907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
Abstract
CO2-switchable surfactants have selective surface-activity, which can be activated or deactivated either by adding or removing CO2 from the solution. This feature enables us to use them in the fabrication of responsive colloids, a group of dispersed systems that can be controlled by changing the environmental conditions. In chemical processes, including extraction, reaction, or heterogeneous catalysis, colloids are required in some specific steps of the processes, in which maximum contact area between immiscible phases or reactants is desired. Afterward, the colloids must be broken for the postprocessing of products, solvents, and agents, which can be facilitated by using CO2-switchable surfactants in surfactant-stabilized colloids. These surfactants are mainly cationic and can be activated by the protonation of a nitrogen-containing group upon sparging CO2 gas. Also, CO2-switchable superamphiphiles can be formed by non-covalent bonding between components at least one of which is CO2-switchable. So far, CO2-switchable surfactants have been used in CO2-switchable spherical and wormlike micelles, vesicles, emulsions, foams, and Pickering emulsions. Here, we review the fabrication procedure, chemical structure, switching scheme, stability, environmental conditions, and design philosophy of such responsive colloids. Their fields of application are wide, including emulsion polymerization, catalysis, soil washing, drug delivery, extraction, viscosity control, and oil transportation. We also emphasize their application for the CO2-assisted enhanced oil recovery (EOR) process as a promising approach for carbon capture, utilization, and storage to combat climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeid Dowlati
- Chair of Chemical and Process Engineering, Technical University of Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, D-13355 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Rasoul Mokhtari
- Danish Offshore Technology Centre, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lena Hohl
- Chair of Chemical and Process Engineering, Technical University of Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, D-13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Reinhard Miller
- Institute for Condensed Matter Physics, Technical University of Darmstadt, Hochschulstraße 8, D-64289 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Matthias Kraume
- Chair of Chemical and Process Engineering, Technical University of Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, D-13355 Berlin, Germany
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Li N, Ma H, Wang T, Sun C, Xia S. Effect of molecular weight on the properties of water-soluble terpolymers for heavy oil viscosity reduction. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2023.104738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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A Review of Oil-Solid Separation and Oil-Water Separation in Unconventional Heavy Oil Production Process. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010074. [PMID: 36613516 PMCID: PMC9820792 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Unconventional heavy oil ores (UHO) have been considered an important part of petroleum resources and an alternative source of chemicals and energy supply. Due to the participation of water and extractants, oil-solid separation (OSS) and oil-water separation (OWS) processes are inevitable in the industrial separation processes of UHO. Therefore, this critical review systematically reviews the basic theories of OSS and OWS, including solid wettability, contact angle, oil-solid interactions, structural characteristics of natural surfactants and interface characteristics of interfacially active asphaltene film. With the basic theories in mind, the corresponding OSS and OWS mechanisms are discussed. Finally, the present challenges and future research considerations are touched on to provide insights and theoretical fundamentals for OSS and OWS. Additionally, this critical review might even be useful for the provision of a framework of research prospects to guide future research directions in laboratories and industries that focus on the OSS and OWS processes in this important heavy oil production field.
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Liu L, Zhang M, Lu Z, Jin Z, Lu Y, Sun D, Xu Z. Molecular structure-tuned stability and switchability of CO 2-responsive oil-in-water emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 627:661-670. [PMID: 35872422 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Pseudo-Gemini surfactants (PGS) possessing switchable and recyclable features have drawn increasing attention on generating high-performance CO2-responsive emulsions for wide range and versatile applications. However, there is a lack of fundamental understanding on how the molecular structure of PGS affects the stability and switchability of emulsions. We hypothesize that the length and type of the spacer in PGS play a decisive role in controlling interfacial and switching properties. EXPERIMENTS Two series of PGS with different spacers were prepared through electrostatic association between amines and oleic acid. The interfacial activity and CO2-responsive properties of corresponding emulsions were systematically investigated by well-designed experiments and molecular dynamics simulations. FINDINGS Increasing the spacer length to allow the bent configuration leads to more tight arrangement of oleic molecules, consequently improving the interfacial activity. In addition, the introduction of amino group into the spacer dramatically promotes CO2 response of resulting PGS due to ehanced migration of the spacer from the interface to the aqueous phase after CO2 addition. These results are inspiring in designing controllable CO2-responsive emulsions for a wide range of industrial applications (e.g., enhanced oil recovery and oil-contaminated soil remediation).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingfei Liu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Mingshan Zhang
- School of Mining and Petroleum Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zhouguang Lu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhehui Jin
- School of Mining and Petroleum Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yi Lu
- Bioproducts Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Dejun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Shandong University, Ministry of Education, Jinan, Shandong 250100, China
| | - Zhenghe Xu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China.
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Ma J, Yao M, Yang Y, Zhang X. Comprehensive review on stability and demulsification of unconventional heavy oil-water emulsions. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.118510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Lu Y, Zhu Y, Yang F, Xu Z, Liu Q. Advanced Switchable Molecules and Materials for Oil Recovery and Oily Waste Cleanup. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2004082. [PMID: 34047073 PMCID: PMC8336505 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202004082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Advanced switchable molecules and materials have shown great potential in numerous applications. These novel materials can express different states of physicochemical properties as controlled by a designated stimulus, such that the processing condition can always be maintained in an optimized manner for improved efficiency and sustainability throughout the whole process. Herein, the recent advances in switchable molecules/materials in oil recovery and oily waste cleanup are reviewed. Oil recovery and oily waste cleanup are of critical importance to the industry and environment. Switchable materials can be designed with various types of switchable properties, including i) switchable interfacial activity, ii) switchable viscosity, iii) switchable solvent, and iv) switchable wettability. The materials can then be deployed into the most suitable applications according to the process requirements. An in-depth discussion about the fundamental basis of the design considerations is provided for each type of switchable material, followed by details about their performances and challenges in the applications. Finally, an outlook for the development of next-generation switchable molecules/materials is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lu
- Department of Chemical and Materials EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonAlbertaT6G 1H9Canada
| | - Yeling Zhu
- Department of Chemical and Materials EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonAlbertaT6G 1H9Canada
| | - Fan Yang
- College of New Materials and New EnergiesShenzhen Technology UniversityShenzhen518118P. R. China
| | - Zhenghe Xu
- Department of Chemical and Materials EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonAlbertaT6G 1H9Canada
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringSouthern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhen518055P. R. China
| | - Qingxia Liu
- Department of Chemical and Materials EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonAlbertaT6G 1H9Canada
- College of New Materials and New EnergiesShenzhen Technology UniversityShenzhen518118P. R. China
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Hou J, Du J, Sui H, Sun L. Surfactants Enhanced Heavy Oil-Solid Separation from Carbonate Asphalt Rocks-Experiment and Molecular Dynamic Simulation. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:1835. [PMID: 34361220 PMCID: PMC8308391 DOI: 10.3390/nano11071835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study, surfactants were used to enhance heavy oil-solid separation, and a detailed mechanism was explored by SARA (saturates, aromatics, resins, asphaltenes) analysis, element analysis, AFM measurement, and molecular dynamic simulation. Surfactants could effectively decrease oil/solid interaction force and then oil-solid separation would be enhanced. The oil-solid interactive force was in relation to surfactants concentration, pH value, asphaltene content, and salinity. The molecular dynamics simulation results show that the dissociation of saturated hydrocarbon, aromatic hydrocarbon, resin, and asphaltene (SARA) on carbonate minerals is gradually weakened for all surfactants. In the process of molecular dynamics simulation of surfactant stripping SARA, firstly, the surfactant molecules adsorb on the surface of SARA molecules. After that, the surfactant peels SARA molecules off the surface of calcite under the influence of molecular thermal motion. In this process, surfactant molecules will not be directly adsorbed on the surface of trace minerals. The results of energy/temperature balance indicated that saturates, aromatics and resins could remain stable when the molecular dynamics simulation time reached 2000 ps with the phenomenon that saturates, aromatics could liberate from minerals totally within 2000 ps. The molecular dynamics simulation of asphaltenes will not liberate from calcite surface within 6000 ps, meanwhile, they could not reach the energy balance/energy balance within 6000 ps. The functional groups of surfactant molecules would have interactions with the SARA functional group, resulting in different dissociation effects of SARA. The results of molecular dynamics simulation are consistent with the experiment results. The separation effect of saturated hydrocarbon, aromatic hydrocarbon, resin, and asphaltene in five kinds of surfactants were different. The molecular dynamic simulation results were in accordance with the SARA analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjian Hou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.H.); (L.S.)
- National Engineering Research Centre of Distillation Technology, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jinze Du
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.H.); (L.S.)
- National Engineering Research Centre of Distillation Technology, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Hong Sui
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.H.); (L.S.)
- National Engineering Research Centre of Distillation Technology, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Lingyu Sun
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.H.); (L.S.)
- National Engineering Research Centre of Distillation Technology, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
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Ren G, Li B, Ren L, Lu D, Zhang P, Tian L, Di W, Shao W, He J, Sun D. pH-Responsive Nanoemulsions Based on a Dynamic Covalent Surfactant. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11061390. [PMID: 34070322 PMCID: PMC8227844 DOI: 10.3390/nano11061390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Developing solid-free nanoemulsions with pH responsiveness is desirable in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) applications. Here, we report the synthesis of an interfacial activity controllable surfactant (T−DBA) through dynamic imine bonding between taurine (T) and p-decyloxybenzaldehyde (DBA). Instead of macroemulsions, nanoemulsions can be prepared by using T−DBA as an emulsifier. The dynamic imine bond of T−DBA enables switching between the active and inactive states in response to pH. This switching of interfacial activity was used to gate the stability of nanoemulsions, thus enabling us to turn the nanoemulsions off and on. Using such dynamic imine bonds to govern nanoemulsion stability could enable intelligent control of many processes such as heavy oil recovery and interfacial reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaihuan Ren
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.R.); (W.D.)
| | - Bo Li
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
| | - Lulu Ren
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.R.); (W.D.)
| | - Dongxu Lu
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
| | - Pan Zhang
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
| | - Lulu Tian
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
| | - Wenwen Di
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.R.); (W.D.)
| | - Weili Shao
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
- Correspondence: (W.S.); (J.H.); (D.S.); Tel.: +86-531-88364749 (D.S); Fax: +86-531-88364750 (D.S.)
| | - Jianxin He
- Textile and Garment Industry of Research Institute, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450007, China; (G.R.); (B.L.); (D.L.); (P.Z.); (L.T.)
- Correspondence: (W.S.); (J.H.); (D.S.); Tel.: +86-531-88364749 (D.S); Fax: +86-531-88364750 (D.S.)
| | - Dejun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.R.); (W.D.)
- Correspondence: (W.S.); (J.H.); (D.S.); Tel.: +86-531-88364749 (D.S); Fax: +86-531-88364750 (D.S.)
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Li R, Lu Y, Zhang Z, Manica R. Role of Surfactants Based on Fatty Acids in the Wetting Behavior of Solid-Oil-Aqueous Solution Systems. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:5682-5690. [PMID: 33915048 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Surfactants based on fatty acids have attracted extensive attention thanks to their eco-friendly and pH-responsive features. Here, we studied two fatty acid-based surfactants that were paired with the same organic counterion but distinguished by their aliphatic chain lengths (monoethanolamine-oleic acid (MEA-OA) and monoethanolamine-lauric acid (MEA-LA)). Both surfactants exhibited the ability to lower the oil-water interfacial tension but lost their interfacial activity in a low-pH environment. We experimentally investigated their influence on the receding and spreading of oil droplets on solid surfaces. It was found that the interfacial tension reduction could decrease the static contact angle of the aqueous phase and hindered displacement dynamics during the oil droplet receding. Meanwhile, the interfacial activity was more likely to suppress the initiation of the oil droplet spreading due to the more stable thin-film forming prior to the spreading process. Nevertheless, the experimental results also exhibited that MEA-OA was more effective than MEA-LA in suppressing the receding dynamics and the spreading initiation even when they were characterized by similar interfacial tension values. Such an interesting observation could be attributed to the more considerable Marangoni flow in the solution of MEA-OA whose molecules have longer aliphatic chains. The insight from this study is expected to improve the knowledge on the molecular design for more efficient applications of fatty acid-based surfactants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zhiqing Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Rogerio Manica
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
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