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Vu TN, Le PHP, Pham DNP, Hoang TH, Nadda AK, Le TS, Pham TD. Highly adsorptive protein inorganic nanohybrid of Moringa seeds protein and rice husk nanosilica for effective adsorption of pharmaceutical contaminants. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 307:135856. [PMID: 35944682 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The present study aims to investigate adsorption characteristics and mechanisms of Moringa (MO) seeds protein on nanosilica rice husk and their applications in removal of pharmaceutical residues including the fluoroquinolone antibiotic levofloxacin (LFX) and the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (DCF) in aquatic environment. Molecular weight of MO protein was determined by gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) method while its amino acids were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The number-(Mn) and weight-average molecular weights (Mw) of MO protein were 1.53 × 104 and 1.61 × 104 g/mol, respectively. Different effective conditions on adsorption protein on nanosilica including contact time, pH, adsorbent dosage, and ionic strength were systematically optimized and found to be 180 min, 10, 10 mg/mL and 1 mM KCl, respectively. The surface charge change by zeta potential, surface modification by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and adsorption isotherms demonstrated that protein adsorption on nanosilica was governed by both electrostatic and non-electrostatic interactions. Application of protein functionalized nanosilica (ProFNS) in LFX and DCF removal were also thoroughly studied. The selected conditions for LFX and DCF removal using ProFNS were 1 mM KCl for both LFX and DCF; pH 8 and pH 6; contact time 90 and 120 min, and adsorption dosage 10 and 5 mg/ml for LFX and DCF, respectively. Adsorption isotherms of protein on nanosilica as well as LFX and DCF onto ProFNS at different ionic strengths were reasonably fitted by the two-step model while a pseudo-second-order model could fit adsorption kinetic well. The removal of LFX and DCF using ProFNS significantly increased from 51.51% to 87.35%, and 7.97%-50.02%, respectively. High adsorption capacities of 75.75 mg/g for LFX and 59.52 mg/g for DCF, indicate that ProFNS is a great performance for pharmaceutical residues removal in water environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Ngan Vu
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hoan Kiem, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Hai Phong Le
- HUS High School for Gifted Students, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 182 Luong the Vinh, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam
| | - Duc Nam Phuong Pham
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hoan Kiem, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam
| | - Thu Ha Hoang
- University of Education, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 144 Xuan Thuy, Cau Giay, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam.
| | - Ashok Kumar Nadda
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173 234, India
| | - Thanh Son Le
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hoan Kiem, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam
| | - Tien Duc Pham
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hoan Kiem, Hanoi, 100000, Viet Nam.
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Bah MG, Bilal HM, Wang J. Fabrication and application of complex microcapsules: a review. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:570-590. [PMID: 31845956 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm01634a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The development of new functional materials requires cutting-edge technologies for incorporating different functional materials without reducing their functionality. Microencapsulation is a method to encapsulate different functional materials at nano- and micro-scales, which can provide the necessary protection for the encapsulated materials. In this review, microencapsulation is categorized into chemical, physical, physico-chemical and microfluidic methods. The focus of this review is to describe these four categories in detail by elaborating their various microencapsulation methods and mechanisms. This review further discusses the key features and potential applications of each method. Through this review, the readers could be aware of many aspects of this field from the fabrication processes, to the main properties, and to the applications of microcapsules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Gibril Bah
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, P. R. China.
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Gain scheduling PID control for directed self‐assembly of colloidal particles in microfluidic devices. AIChE J 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.16582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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4
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Liu G, Feng J, Zhu W, Jiang Y. Zein self-assembly using the built-in ultrasonic dialysis process: microphase behavior and the effect of dialysate properties. Colloid Polym Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00396-017-4238-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ceccon A, Lelli M, D’Onofrio M, Molinari H, Assfalg M. Dynamics of a Globular Protein Adsorbed to Liposomal Nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:13158-61. [DOI: 10.1021/ja507310m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Ceccon
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Moreno Lelli
- Centre
de RMN à Trés Hauts Champs, Institut de Sciences Analytiques, Université de Lyon, CNRS/ENS Lyon/UCB Lyon 1, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Mariapina D’Onofrio
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Henriette Molinari
- Laboratorio
NMR, Istituto per lo Studio delle Macromolecole, CNR, Via Bassini 15, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Michael Assfalg
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy
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Chollakup R, Smitthipong W, Chworos A. Supramolecular cooperative-assembly of polyelectrolyte films. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra22884c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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8
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Abstract
A new class of very stable and stimuli-responsive nanolatexes based on copolymers of reactive and stimuli responsive ionic liquid surfactants is synthesized by microemulsion polymerization to yield dispersions of 22-30 nm diameter particles. Aqueous coatings of these nanolatexes dry to form robust films that exhibit stimuli-responsiveness to certain ion exchangeable anions. The nature of the reactive ionic liquid surfactant monomers induces an ion exchange capacity in the resulting copolymers and films. Transparent films of such nanolatexes can be transformed into opaque and porous films and membranes as a stimulus-response to anion exchange. These nanolatexes are ionic nanogels that are insensitive to Debye-Hückel screening by an indifferent salt and exhibit very soft interparticle interactions, qualifying them as ideal candidates as waterborne dispersing aids; in addition, these nanogels appear to be experimental examples of osmotic nanospheres emanating from the theoretical development of osmotic brushes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin England
- Coatings Research Institute, School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan 48197, United States
| | - Nikhil Tambe
- Coatings Research Institute, School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan 48197, United States
| | - John Texter
- Coatings Research Institute, School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan 48197, United States
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9
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Lei Z, Yang B, Li J. Improved Inheritance Algorithm for the Assembly of Coal Fragments. Ind Eng Chem Res 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ie201715q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Lei
- Department of Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
| | - Bolun Yang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
| | - Jianwei Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
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Smith JR, Cicerone MT, Meuse CW. Measuring hydrogen-deuterium exchange in protein monolayers. SURF INTERFACE ANAL 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/sia.3108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Smith JR, Cicerone MT, Meuse CW. Tertiary structure changes in albumin upon surface adsorption observed via fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:4571-4578. [PMID: 19366224 DOI: 10.1021/la802955w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A nondestructive Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy assay, amenable to exploring a wide range of proteins and polymers, is used to measure changes in the tertiary structure of bovine serum albumin (BSA) adsorbed to three surfaces: gold, polystyrene (PS), and poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA). Tertiary structural analysis is important because typical secondary structural analysis (FTIR and CD) is not always sensitive enough to distinguish between the sometimes subtle protein structural changes caused by adsorption. The polymers are spin-coated onto a gold surface, exposed to protein, and then immersed in a deuterated buffer solution to probe the protein's tertiary structure before the sample is removed from its aqueous environment. Infrared band intensities, related to the exchange of amide hydrogen for deuterium (HDX), as a function of the immersion time in deuterated buffer, are used to determine the extent of amide solvent exposure. Analysis of the results in terms of a single exponential decay shows that enough amides undergo a measurable amount of exchange in 60 min to quantify relative changes in BSA solvent exposure on different surfaces. In addition, substantial fractions undergo HDX at a rate too fast or too slow to be followed with our experimental protocol. The proportions of these quickly and slowly exchanging amide groups also provide information about relative changes in the BSA structure on different surfaces. Adsorption was found to increase the extent of HDX over that observed for BSA in solution, consistent with surface-induced unfolding and a loss of tertiary structure. Changes in HDX were found to be more sensitive to which surface was absorbing the protein than the typical FTIR secondary structural analysis obtained from fitting the amide I band. HDX was greatest for BSA adsorbed to the surface of PDLLA and least in the case of BSA adsorbed to gold, which indicates the greatest and least degree of unfolding, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack R Smith
- Polymers Division, Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-8543, USA
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Smitthipong W, Neumann T, Gajria S, Li Y, Chworos A, Jaeger L, Tirrell M. Noncovalent Self-Assembling Nucleic Acid-Lipid Based Materials. Biomacromolecules 2008; 10:221-8. [DOI: 10.1021/bm800701a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wirasak Smitthipong
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Thorsten Neumann
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Surekha Gajria
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Youli Li
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Arkadiusz Chworos
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Luc Jaeger
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
| | - Matthew Tirrell
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
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Zheng Z, Stroumpoulis D, Parra A, Petzold L, Tirrell M. A Monte Carlo simulation study of lipid bilayer formation on hydrophilic substrates from vesicle solutions. J Chem Phys 2007; 124:64904. [PMID: 16483241 DOI: 10.1063/1.2166392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A general lattice Monte Carlo model is used for simulating the formation of supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) from vesicle solutions. The model, based on a previously published paper, consists of adsorption, decomposition, and lateral diffusion steps, and is derived from fundamental physical interactions and mass transport principles. The Monte Carlo simulation results are fit to experimental data at different vesicle bulk concentrations. A sensitivity analysis reveals that the process strongly depends on the bulk concentration C(0), adsorption rate constant K, and all vesicle radii parameters. A measure of "quality of coverage" is proposed. By this measure, the quality of the formed bilayers is found to increase with vesicle bulk concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheming Zheng
- Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, 93106, USA
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Dobrikova AG, Dimitrov MI, Taneva SG, Petkanchin IB. Protein-coated β-ferric hydrous oxide particles. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2007; 56:114-20. [PMID: 17207973 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2006.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Revised: 11/22/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Using microelectrophoresis and electric light scattering techniques, we investigated the adsorption characteristics, surface coverage and surface electric parameters of superstructures from two isoforms of plastocyanin, PCa and PCb, in an oxidized state adsorbed on beta-ferric hydrous oxide particles. The surface electric charge and electric dipole moments of the composite particles and the thickness of the protein adsorption layer are determined in a wide pH range, at different ionic strengths and concentration ratios of PC to beta-FeOOH. The adsorption of the two proteins was found to shift the particles' isoelectric point and to alter the total electric charge and the electric dipole moments of the oxide particles to different extent. A "reversal" in the direction of the permanent dipole moment is observed at lower pH for PCb- than for PCa-coated oxide particles. Strict correlation is found between the changes in the electrokinetic charge of the composite particles and the variation in their "permanent" dipole moments. Data suggest that the adsorption of the proteins is driven by electrostatic and/or hydrophobic interactions with the oxide surfaces dependent on pH. The adsorption behaviour is consistent with the involvement of the "eastern" and "northern" patches of the plastocyanin molecules in their adsorption on the oxide surfaces that are differently charged depending on pH.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Dobrikova
- Institute of Biophysics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., Bl. 21, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria.
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15
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Marek M, Grof Z, Kocí P, Kohout M, Kosek J, Štepánek F. Multiscale Modelling of Transport, Reaction and Phase Change in Heterogeneous Media. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING OF JAPAN 2007. [DOI: 10.1252/jcej.07we044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Marek
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology
| | - Zdenek Grof
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London
| | - Petr Kocí
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology
| | - Martin Kohout
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology
| | - Juraj Kosek
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology
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16
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Pattenden LK, Middelberg APJ, Niebert M, Lipin DI. Towards the preparative and large-scale precision manufacture of virus-like particles. Trends Biotechnol 2006; 23:523-9. [PMID: 16084615 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2005] [Revised: 06/03/2005] [Accepted: 07/21/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are of interest in vaccination, gene therapy and drug delivery, but their potential has yet to be fully realized. This is because existing laboratory processes, when scaled, do not easily give a compositionally and architecturally consistent product. Research suggests that new process routes might ultimately be based on chemical processing by self-assembly, involving the precision manufacture of precursor capsomeres followed by in vitro VLP self-assembly and scale-up to required levels. A synergistic interaction of biomolecular design and bioprocess engineering (i.e. biomolecular engineering) is required if these alternative process routes and, thus, the promise of new VLP products, are to be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard K Pattenden
- Centre for Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and The Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
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18
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Stroumpoulis D, Parra A, Tirrell M. A kinetic study of vesicle fusion on silicon dioxide surfaces by ellipsometry. AIChE J 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.10914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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20
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Kantarci N, Tamerler C, Sarikaya M, Haliloglu T, Doruker P. Molecular dynamics simulations on constraint metal binding peptides. POLYMER 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2005.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Raut VP, Agashe MA, Stuart SJ, Latour RA. Molecular dynamics simulations of peptide-surface interactions. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:1629-1639. [PMID: 15697318 DOI: 10.1021/la047807f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Proteins, which are bioactive molecules, adsorb on implants placed in the body through complex and poorly understood mechanisms and directly influence biocompatibility. Molecular dynamics modeling using empirical force fields provides one of the most direct methods of theoretically analyzing the behavior of complex molecular systems and is well-suited for the simulation of protein adsorption behavior. To accurately simulate protein adsorption behavior, a force field must correctly represent the thermodynamic driving forces that govern peptide residue-surface interactions. However, since existing force fields were developed without specific consideration of protein-surface interactions, they may not accurately represent this type of molecular behavior. To address this concern, we developed a host-guest peptide adsorption model in the form of a G(4)-X-G(4) peptide (G is glycine, X is a variable residue) to enable determination of the contributions to adsorption free energy of different X residues when adsorbed to functionalized Au-alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). We have previously reported experimental results using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy to measure the free energy of peptide adsorption for this peptide model with X = G and K (lysine) on OH and COOH functionalized SAMs. The objectives of the present research were the development and assessment of methods to calculate adsorption free energy using molecular dynamics simulations with the GROMACS force field for these same peptide adsorption systems, with an oligoethylene oxide (OEG) functionalized SAM surface also being considered. By comparing simulation results to the experimental results, the accuracy of the selected force field to represent the behavior of these molecular systems can be evaluated. From our simulations, the G(4)-G-G(4) and G(4)-K-G(4) peptides showed minimal to no adsorption to the OH SAM surfaces and the G(4)-K-G(4) showed strong adsorption to the COOH SAM surface, which is in agreement with our SPR experiments. Contrary to our experimental results, however, the simulations predicted a relatively strong adsorption of G(4)-G-G(4) peptide to the COOH SAM surface. In addition, both peptides were unexpectedly predicted to adsorb to the OEG surface. These findings demonstrate the need for GROMACS force field parameters to be rebalanced for the simulation of peptide adsorption behavior on SAM surfaces. The developed methods provide a direct means of assessing, modifying, and validating force field performance for the simulation of peptide and protein adsorption to surfaces, without which little confidence can be placed in the simulation results that are generated with these types of systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P Raut
- Department of Bioengineering and Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
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Modeling of Transport and Transformation Processes in Porous and Multiphase Bodies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2377(05)30003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Abraham T, Christendat D, Xu Z, Masliyah J, Gohy JF, Jérôme R. Role of polyelectrolyte charge density in tuning colloidal forces. AIChE J 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.10255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abstract
The interaction of proteins with solid surfaces is a fundamental phenomenon with implications for nanotechnology, biomaterials and biotechnological processes. Kinetic and thermodynamic studies have long indicated that significant conformational changes may occur as a protein encounters a surface; new techniques are measuring and modeling these changes. Combinatorial and directed evolution techniques have created new peptide sequences that bind specifically to solid surfaces, similar to the natural proteins that regulate crystal growth. Modeling efforts capture kinetics and thermodynamics on the colloidal scale, but detailed treatments of atomic structure are still in development and face the usual challenges of protein modeling. Opportunities abound for fundamental discovery, as well as breakthroughs in biomaterials, biotechnology and nanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Gray
- Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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