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Abstract
PURPOSE The prevalence of myopia has increased dramatically worldwide within the last three decades. Recent studies have shown that refractive development is influenced by environmental, behavioral, and inherited factors. This review aims to analyze recent progress in the genetics of refractive error and myopia. METHODS A comprehensive literature search of PubMed and OMIM was conducted to identify relevant articles in the genetics of refractive error. RESULTS Genome-wide association and sequencing studies have increased our understanding of the genetics involved in refractive error. These studies have identified interesting candidate genes. All genetic loci discovered to date indicate that refractive development is a heterogeneous process mediated by a number of overlapping biological processes. The exact mechanisms by which these biological networks regulate eye growth are poorly understood. Although several individual genes and/or molecular pathways have been investigated in animal models, a systematic network-based approach in modeling human refractive development is necessary to understand the complex interplay between genes and environment in refractive error. CONCLUSION New biomedical technologies and better-designed studies will continue to refine our understanding of the genetics and molecular pathways of refractive error, and may lead to preventative and therapeutic measures to combat the myopia epidemic.
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Martínez-Frías ML, Ocejo-Vinyals JG, Arteaga R, Martínez-Fernández ML, MacDonald A, Pérez-Belmonte E, Bermejo-Sánchez E, Martínez S. Interstitial deletion 14q22.3-q23.2: Genotype-phenotype correlation. Am J Med Genet A 2013; 164A:639-47. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- María Luisa Martínez-Frías
- Departamento de Farmacología; Facultad de Medicina; Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Madrid Spain
- Spanish Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations (ECEMC); CIAC (Research Center on Congenital Anomalies); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Madrid Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) (U724); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad; Madrid Spain
| | | | - Rosa Arteaga
- Servicio de Neurología; Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla; Santander Spain
| | - María Luisa Martínez-Fernández
- Spanish Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations (ECEMC); CIAC (Research Center on Congenital Anomalies); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Madrid Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) (U724); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad; Madrid Spain
| | - Alexandra MacDonald
- Spanish Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations (ECEMC); CIAC (Research Center on Congenital Anomalies); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Madrid Spain
| | - Elena Pérez-Belmonte
- Servicio de Pediatría; Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla; Santander Spain
| | - Eva Bermejo-Sánchez
- Spanish Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations (ECEMC); CIAC (Research Center on Congenital Anomalies); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Madrid Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) (U724); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad; Madrid Spain
- Instituto de Investigación de Enfermedades Raras (IIER); Instituto de Salud Carlos III. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad; Madrid Spain
| | - Salvador Martínez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante; CSIC-UMH; San Juan de Alicante Spain
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Aldahmesh MA, Khan AO, Hijazi H, Alkuraya FS. Homozygous truncation of SIX6 causes complex microphthalmia in humans. Clin Genet 2012; 84:198-9. [PMID: 23167593 DOI: 10.1111/cge.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Gamage TH, Godapitiya IUH, Nanayakkara S, Jayasekara RW, Dissanayake VHW. A child with mosaicism for deletion (14)(q11.2q13). INDIAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN GENETICS 2012; 18:130-3. [PMID: 22754240 PMCID: PMC3385171 DOI: 10.4103/0971-6866.96684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In this case report we describe a child with a de novo deletion in the (q11.2q13) region of chromosome 14. The child presented with dysmorphic features - anophthalmia, microcephaly, and growth retardation. Cytogenetic studies showed mosaicism. The karyotype was 46,XX,del(14)(q11.2;q13) [16] /46,XX [9]. We compared the features observed in this child with that of others with the same deletion reported in scientific literature and found that this is the first report of a child mosaic for this deletion. It is also the first time it has been reported in association with anophthalmia.
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Lumaka A, Van Hole C, Casteels I, Ortibus E, De Wolf V, Vermeesch JR, Lukusa T, Devriendt K. Variability in expression of a familial 2.79 Mb microdeletion in chromosome14q22.1-22.2. Am J Med Genet A 2012; 158A:1381-7. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.35353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Pearce ZD, Droste PJ, Aaberg TM, Hassan AS. Ophthalmic and Systemic Findings in Interstitial Deletions of Chromosome 14q: A Case Feport and Literature Review. Ophthalmic Genet 2012; 33:161-6. [DOI: 10.3109/13816810.2012.655359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Pericentric inversion, inv(14)(p11.2q22.3), in a 9-month old with features of Goldenhar syndrome. Clin Dysmorphol 2010; 19:185-189. [DOI: 10.1097/mcd.0b013e3283359386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Conte I, Marco-Ferreres R, Beccari L, Cisneros E, Ruiz JM, Tabanera N, Bovolenta P. Proper differentiation of photoreceptors and amacrine cells depends on a regulatory loop between NeuroD and Six6. Development 2010; 137:2307-17. [PMID: 20534668 DOI: 10.1242/dev.045294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Timely generation of distinct neural cell types in appropriate numbers is fundamental for the generation of a functional retina. In vertebrates, the transcription factor Six6 is initially expressed in multipotent retina progenitors and then becomes restricted to differentiated retinal ganglion and amacrine cells. How Six6 expression in the retina is controlled and what are its precise functions are still unclear. To address this issue, we used bioinformatic searches and transgenic approaches in medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) to characterise highly conserved regulatory enhancers responsible for Six6 expression. One of the enhancers drove gene expression in the differentiating and adult retina. A search for transcription factor binding sites, together with luciferase, ChIP assays and gain-of-function studies, indicated that NeuroD, a bHLH transcription factor, directly binds an 'E-box' sequence present in this enhancer and specifically regulates Six6 expression in the retina. NeuroD-induced Six6 overexpression in medaka embryos promoted unorganized retinal progenitor proliferation and, most notably, impaired photoreceptor differentiation, with no apparent changes in other retinal cell types. Conversely, Six6 gain- and loss-of-function changed NeuroD expression levels and altered the expression of the photoreceptor differentiation marker Rhodopsin. In addition, knockdown of Six6 interfered with amacrine cell generation. Together, these results indicate that Six6 and NeuroD control the expression of each other and their functions coordinate amacrine cell generation and photoreceptor terminal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Conte
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras, Madrid, Spain
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Hayashi S, Okamoto N, Makita Y, Hata A, Imoto I, Inazawa J. Heterozygous deletion at 14q22.1-q22.3 including the BMP4 gene in a patient with psychomotor retardation, congenital corneal opacity and feet polysyndactyly. Am J Med Genet A 2008; 146A:2905-10. [PMID: 18925664 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.32519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Here we report on a 1-year-old Japanese girl with psychomotor retardation, bilateral congenital corneal opacity and bilateral postaxial polysyndactyly of the feet. Although she had a normal female karyotype, our in-house bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based array-CGH analysis successfully detected at least a 2.7-Mb heterozygous deletion at 14q22.1-q22.3 harboring 18 protein-coding genes. Among the genes, BMP4 was a candidate for the gene causing the abnormalities of both the eye and digits. It was previously reported that the BMP family was correlated with the morphogenesis of digits and ocular development, and Bmp4 heterozygous null mice revealed skeletal abnormalities including polydactyly and ocular anterior segment abnormalities. Patients with a deletion including BMP4 also hadabnormalities of the eye and digits. These previous reports support that a haplo-insufficiency of the BMP4 gene likely caused the congenital ocular and digit abnormalities. Moreover, among the other genes contained in the deletion, GMFB is a candidate for the gene responsible for the psychomotor retardation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Hayashi
- Department of Molecular Cytogenetics, Medical Research Institute and School of Biomedical Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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Ou Z, Martin DM, Bedoyan JK, Cooper ML, Chinault AC, Stankiewicz P, Cheung SW. Branchiootorenal syndrome and oculoauriculovertebral spectrum features associated with duplication ofSIX1,SIX6, andOTX2resulting from a complex chromosomal rearrangement. Am J Med Genet A 2008; 146A:2480-9. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.32398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Bakrania P, Efthymiou M, Klein JC, Salt A, Bunyan DJ, Wyatt A, Ponting CP, Martin A, Williams S, Lindley V, Gilmore J, Restori M, Robson AG, Neveu MM, Holder GE, Collin JRO, Robinson DO, Farndon P, Johansen-Berg H, Gerrelli D, Ragge NK. Mutations in BMP4 cause eye, brain, and digit developmental anomalies: overlap between the BMP4 and hedgehog signaling pathways. Am J Hum Genet 2008; 82:304-19. [PMID: 18252212 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2007] [Revised: 09/18/2007] [Accepted: 09/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental ocular malformations, including anophthalmia-microphthalmia (AM), are heterogeneous disorders with frequent sporadic or non-Mendelian inheritance. Recurrent interstitial deletions of 14q22-q23 have been associated with AM, sometimes with poly/syndactyly and hypopituitarism. We identify two further cases of AM (one with associated pituitary anomalies) with a 14q22-q23 deletion. Using a positional candidate gene approach, we analyzed the BMP4 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein-4) gene and identified a frameshift mutation (c.226del2, p.S76fs104X) that segregated with AM, retinal dystrophy, myopia, brain anomalies, and polydactyly in a family and a nonconservative missense mutation (c.278A-->G, p.E93G) in a highly conserved base in another family. MR imaging and tractography in the c.226del2 proband revealed a primary brain developmental disorder affecting thalamostriatal and callosal pathways, also present in the affected grandmother. Using in situ hybridization in human embryos, we demonstrate expression of BMP4 in optic vesicle, developing retina and lens, pituitary region, and digits strongly supporting BMP4 as a causative gene for AM, pituitary, and poly/syndactyly. Because BMP4 interacts with HH signaling genes in animals, we evaluated gene expression in human embryos and demonstrate cotemporal and cospatial expression of BMP4 and HH signaling genes. We also identified four cases, some of whom had retinal dystrophy, with "low-penetrant" mutations in both BMP4 and HH signaling genes: SHH (Sonic Hedgehog) or PTCH1 (Patched). We propose that BMP4 is a major gene for AM and/or retinal dystrophy and brain anomalies and may be a candidate gene for myopia and poly/syndactyly. Our finding of low-penetrant variants in BMP4 and HH signaling partners is suggestive of an interaction between the two pathways in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Bakrania
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
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The level of BMP4 signaling is critical for the regulation of distinct T-box gene expression domains and growth along the dorso-ventral axis of the optic cup. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2006; 6:62. [PMID: 17173667 PMCID: PMC1764729 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-6-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2006] [Accepted: 12/15/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Polarised gene expression is thought to lead to the graded distribution of signaling molecules providing a patterning mechanism across the embryonic eye. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (Bmp4) is expressed in the dorsal optic vesicle as it transforms into the optic cup. Bmp4 deletions in human and mouse result in failure of eye development, but little attempt has been made to investigate mammalian targets of BMP4 signaling. In chick, retroviral gene overexpression studies indicate that Bmp4 activates the dorsally expressed Tbx5 gene, which represses ventrally expressed cVax. It is not known whether the Tbx5 related genes, Tbx2 and Tbx3, are BMP4 targets in the mammalian retina and whether BMP4 acts at a distance from its site of expression. Although it is established that Drosophila Dpp (homologue of vertebrate Bmp4) acts as a morphogen, there is little evidence that BMP4 gradients are interpreted to create domains of BMP4 target gene expression in the mouse. RESULTS Our data show that the level of BMP4 signaling is critical for the regulation of distinct Tbx2, Tbx3, Tbx5 and Vax2 gene expression domains along the dorso-ventral axis of the mouse optic cup. BMP4 signaling gradients were manipulated in whole mouse embryo cultures during optic cup development, by implantation of beads soaked in BMP4, or the BMP antagonist Noggin, to provide a local signaling source. Tbx2, Tbx3 and Tbx5, showed a differential response to alterations in the level of BMP4 along the entire dorso-ventral axis of the optic cup, suggesting that BMP4 acts across a distance. Increased levels of BMP4 caused expansion of Tbx2 and Tbx3, but not Tbx5, into the ventral retina and repression of the ventral marker Vax2. Conversely, Noggin abolished Tbx5 expression but only shifted Tbx2 expression dorsally. Increased levels of BMP4 signaling caused decreased proliferation, reduced retinal volume and altered the shape of the optic cup. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest the existence of a dorsal-high, ventral-low BMP4 signaling gradient across which distinct domains of Tbx2, Tbx3, Tbx5 and Vax2 transcription factor gene expression are set up. Furthermore we show that the correct level of BMP4 signaling is critical for normal growth of the mammalian embryonic eye.
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McConnell V, Derham R, McManus D, Morrison PJ. Mosaic monosomy 14: clinical features and recognizable facies. Clin Dysmorphol 2004; 13:155-160. [PMID: 15194951 DOI: 10.1097/01.mcd.0000126137.29572.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A 1-year-old child with clinical features of monosomy 14 is reported. She has dysmorphic facial features including ocular colobomata, dolichocephaly and microcephaly, retinal pigmentation, severe seizures, fair curly hair and tapering fingers. There was severe mental retardation. This is the first reported case of severe mosaic monosomy 14, with up to 30% mosaicism. A recognizable facial gestalt is present in children with 14q deletions or partial monosomy 14, as well as susceptibility to infection, feeding difficulties, seizures and retinal pigmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V McConnell
- Department of Medical Genetics, Belfast City Hospital Trust, Belfast, UK Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University College Galway, Galway, Ireland
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14
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Velagaleti GVN. Concerning 14q(22) deletion in a familial case of anophthalmia with polydactyly. Am J Med Genet A 2004; 126A:108;author reply 110. [PMID: 15039982 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.20521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
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