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Fleming M, Bandyopadhyay A, McLay JS, Clark D, King A, Mackay DF, Lyons RA, Sayal K, Brophy S, Pell JP. Age within schoolyear and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Scotland and Wales. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:1070. [PMID: 35637502 PMCID: PMC9150337 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-13453-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies suggest an association between age within schoolyear and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Scotland and Wales have different school entry cut-off dates (six months apart) and policies on holding back children. We aim to investigate the association between relative age and treated attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in two countries, accounting for held-back children. METHODS Routine education and health records of 1,063,256 primary and secondary schoolchildren in Scotland (2009-2013) and Wales (2009-2016) were linked. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationships between age within schoolyear and treated ADHD, adjusting for child, maternity and obstetric confounders. RESULTS Amongst children in their expected school year, 8,721 (0.87%) had treated ADHD (Scotland 0.84%; Wales 0.96%). In Wales, ADHD increased with decreasing age (youngest quartile, adjusted OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.19-1.46) but, in Scotland, it did not differ between the youngest and oldest quartiles. Including held-back children in analysis of their expected year, the overall prevalence of treated ADHD was 0.93%, and increased across age quartiles in both countries. More children were held back in Scotland (57,979; 7.66%) than Wales (2,401; 0.78%). Held-back children were more likely to have treated ADHD (Scotland OR 2.18, 95% CI 2.01-2.36; Wales OR 1.70, 95% CI 1.21-2.31) and 81.18% of held-back children would have been in the youngest quartile of their expected year. CONCLUSIONS Children younger within schoolyear are more likely to be treated for ADHD, suggesting immaturity may influence diagnosis. However, these children are more likely to be held back in countries that permit flexibility, attenuating the relative age effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Fleming
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, 1 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8RZ UK
| | - Amrita Bandyopadhyay
- Administrative Data Research Wales, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
| | - James S. McLay
- Department of Child Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZG UK
| | - David Clark
- Public Health Scotland, Edinburgh, EH12 9EB UK
| | - Albert King
- ScotXed, Scottish Government, Edinburgh, EH6 6QQ UK
| | - Daniel F. Mackay
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, 1 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8RZ UK
| | - Ronan A. Lyons
- Administrative Data Research Wales, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- Health Data Research UK, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
| | - Kapil Sayal
- Division of Psychiatry & Applied Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2UH UK
| | - Sinead Brophy
- Administrative Data Research Wales, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- Health Data Research UK, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
| | - Jill P. Pell
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, 1 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8RZ UK
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Santos RC, Silva ACPE, José Dos Santos M, Barbosa MR, Coimbra DG, Gitaí DLG, de Andrade TG. Environmental temperature as a mediator on the association between photoperiod at birth and chronotype. Chronobiol Int 2020; 37:1662-1668. [PMID: 32573265 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2020.1773843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The association between chronotypes and season of birth (SOB) remains an inconclusive issue due, in some extension, to the lack of investigations of mediation mechanisms. We evaluated the association of photoperiod at birth (PAB) with chronotypes and sleep duration in Brazil (n = 810), and the mediating effect of meteorological factors, sex, age and rs4753426 polymorphism in the melatonin receptor MTNR1B. Longer PAB was associated with a delayed mid-sleep phase with a suppressive effect of maximum environmental temperature. No significant interactions were identified for the other variables. These findings suggest that photoperiod and environmental temperature modulate chronotype development at early stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Costa Santos
- Circadian Medicine Center, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Alagoas , Maceió, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Daniel Gomes Coimbra
- Circadian Medicine Center, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Alagoas , Maceió, Brazil
| | - Daniel Leite Góes Gitaí
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Feferal University of Alagoas , Maceió, Brazil
| | - Tiago Gomes de Andrade
- Circadian Medicine Center, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Alagoas , Maceió, Brazil
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3
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Genetic risk factors and gene–environment interactions in adult and childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Genet 2019; 29:63-78. [DOI: 10.1097/ypg.0000000000000220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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4
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The role of the circadian system in the etiology and pathophysiology of ADHD: time to redefine ADHD? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 11:5-19. [DOI: 10.1007/s12402-018-0271-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Zhang C, Brook JS, Leukefeld CG, De La Rosa M, Brook DW. Season of birth: A predictor of ADHD symptoms in early midlife. Psychiatry Res 2018; 267:243-248. [PMID: 29940455 PMCID: PMC6131025 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this longitudinal study, we applied linear regression analyses to examine season of birth as related to symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early midlife. METHOD We gathered longitudinal data on a prospective cohort of community-dwelling men and women (N = 548) followed from adolescence to early midlife. FINDINGS The findings indicate that, as compared with participants who were born in the summer, those who were born in the spring (Beta = 0.34; t-statistic = 3.59; p < 0.001) had significantly more ADHD symptoms. In addition, exposure to maternal cigarette smoking in adolescence significantly intensified (p < 0.01) the association between season of birth and ADHD symptoms in early midlife. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that exposure to greater maternal maladaptive behaviors, such as cigarette smoking, may result in a greater vulnerability to other environmental risk factors, such as season of birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenshu Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Judith S. Brook
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Carl G. Leukefeld
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-9983, USA
| | - Mario De La Rosa
- Robert Stempel College of Public Health & Social Work, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - David W. Brook
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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Gao Q, Liu L, Li HM, Tang YL, Chen Y, Wang YF, Qian QJ. Interaction Between Season of Birth and COMT Val158Met (rs4680) in ADHD in a Large Sample of Chinese Han Participants. J Atten Disord 2018; 22:886-895. [PMID: 26486601 DOI: 10.1177/1087054715608441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the interaction between catechol-O-methyltransferase gene (COMT) Val108/158Met (rs4680) and season of birth (SOB) on ADHD and its symptoms. METHOD We conducted transmission disequilibrium tests (TDTs) in 976 trios, then further performed the above analyses in subgroups according to SOB. Quantitative analyses were performed for ADHD symptoms evaluated by ADHD Rating Scale-IV in 1,530 ADHD cases. RESULTS Overall, there was no association between COMT and ADHD. After stratification, we found an increased transmission of the Val allele in the trios born in spring, while a decreased transmission was observed in the autumn months. We also observed a significant interaction between Val108/158Met and SOB on ADHD symptoms. Among those born in spring, Met carriers had milder ADHD symptoms compared with Val homozygotes, whereas opposite association was found in those born in autumn. CONCLUSION Our study provided evidence for the modifying effect of SOB on the association between COMT and ADHD along with its symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Gao
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Liu
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Hai-Mei Li
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yi-Lang Tang
- 3 Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Yun Chen
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-Feng Wang
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Qiu-Jin Qian
- 1 Peking University Sixth Hospital, Beijing, China.,2 Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
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Heiskanen L, Kivinen K, Gardberg M, Wahlsten P, Kaasinen V. Season of death and nigral neuronal density in a high-latitude region. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2018; 45:314-317. [PMID: 29753303 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lauri Heiskanen
- Department of Neurology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Katri Kivinen
- Department of Pathology, Turku University Hospital and Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Maria Gardberg
- Department of Pathology, Turku University Hospital and Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Pia Wahlsten
- Department of Government Services/Forensic Medicine, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Turku, Finland
| | - Valtteri Kaasinen
- Department of Neurology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Division of Clinical Neurosciences, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
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Halldner L, Tillander A, Lundholm C, Boman M, Långström N, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P. Relative immaturity and ADHD: findings from nationwide registers, parent- and self-reports. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55:897-904. [PMID: 24673585 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We addressed if immaturity relative to peers reflected in birth month increases the likelihood of ADHD diagnosis and treatment. METHODS We linked nationwide Patient and Prescribed Drug Registers and used prospective cohort and nested case-control designs to study 6-69 year-old individuals in Sweden from July 2005 to December 2009 (Cohort 1). Cohort 1 included 56,263 individuals diagnosed with ADHD or ever used prescribed ADHD-specific medication. Complementary population-representative cohorts provided DSM-IV ADHD symptom ratings; parent-reported for 10,760 9-year-old twins born 1995-2000 from the CATSS study (Cohort 2) and self-reported for 6,970 adult twins age 20-47 years born 1959-1970 from the STAGE study (Cohort 3). We calculated odds ratios (OR:s) for ADHD across age for individuals born in November/December compared to January/February (Cohort 1). ADHD symptoms in Cohorts 2 and 3 were studied as a function of calendar birth month. RESULTS ADHD diagnoses and medication treatment were both significantly more common in individuals born in November/December versus January/February; peaking at ages 6 (OR: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.5-2.2) and 7 years (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.3-1.8) in the Patient and Prescribed Drug Registers, respectively. We found no corresponding differences in parent- or self-reported ADHD symptoms by calendar birth month. CONCLUSION Relative immaturity compared to class mates might contribute to ADHD diagnosis and pharmacotherapy despite absence of parallel findings in reported ADHD symptom loads by relative immaturity. Increased clinical awareness of this phenomenon may be warranted to decrease risk for imprecise diagnostics and treatment. We speculate that flexibility regarding age at school start according to individual maturity could reduce developmentally inappropriate demands on children and improve the precision of ADHD diagnostic practice and pharmacological treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Halldner
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Karolinska Institutet Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Research has highlighted several negative consequences for individuals born in the later part of the academic year, including increased likelihood of being diagnosed with learning disabilities. In this study, we considered whether birthdate predicted ADHD symptomatology using two well known mechanisms, the relative age effect (RAE) and the season of birth effect (SOBE). METHODS Study participants completed two ADHD measures: Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales (CAARS) and the Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS). RESULTS There were gender effects in the WURS data indicating that males scored higher than females on ADHD symptoms as well as a significant interaction in the CAARS data to support differential patterns among males and females. CONCLUSION Overall, results did not support a RAE or SOBE among males or females. Possible reasons for these findings and their implications are discussed.
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10
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Morrow RL, Garland EJ, Wright JM, Maclure M, Taylor S, Dormuth CR. Influence of relative age on diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. CMAJ 2012; 184:755-62. [PMID: 22392937 DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.111619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The annual cut-off date of birth for entry to school in British Columbia, Canada, is Dec. 31. Thus, children born in December are typically the youngest in their grade. We sought to determine the influence of relative age within a grade on the diagnosis and pharmacologic treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. METHODS We conducted a cohort study involving 937 943 children in British Columbia who were 6-12 years of age at any time between Dec. 1, 1997, and Nov. 30, 2008. We calculated the absolute and relative risk of receiving a diagnosis of ADHD and of receiving a prescription for a medication used to treat ADHD (i.e., methylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, mixed amphetamine salts or atomoxetine) for children born in December compared with children born in January. RESULTS Boys who were born in December were 30% more likely (relative risk [RR] 1.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.23-1.37) to receive a diagnosis of ADHD than boys born in January. Girls born in December were 70% more likely (RR 1.70, 95% CI 1.53-1.88) to receive a diagnosis of ADHD than girls born in January. Similarly, boys were 41% more likely (RR 1.41, 95% CI 1.33-1.50) and girls 77% more likely (RR 1.77, 95% CI 1.57-2.00) to be given a prescription for a medication to treat ADHD if they were born in December than if they were born in January. INTERPRETATION The results of our analyses show a relative-age effect in the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in children aged 6-12 years in British Columbia. These findings raise concerns about the potential harms of overdiagnosis and overprescribing. These harms include adverse effects on sleep, appetite and growth, in addition to increased risk of cardiovascular events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Morrow
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC.
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Archer T, Oscar-Berman M, Blum K. Epigenetics in Developmental Disorder: ADHD and Endophenotypes. JOURNAL OF GENETIC SYNDROMES & GENE THERAPY 2011; 2:1000104. [PMID: 22224195 PMCID: PMC3250517 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7412.1000104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with complex interactive operations of genetic and environmental factors, is expressed in a variety of disorder manifestations: severity, co-morbidities of symptoms, and the effects of genes on phenotypes. Neurodevelopmental influences of genomic imprinting have set the stage for the structural-physiological variations that modulate the cognitive, affective, and pathophysiological domains of ADHD. The relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors provide rapidly proliferating insights into the developmental trajectory of the condition, both structurally and functionally. Parent-of-origin effects seem to support the notion that genetic risks for disease process debut often interact with the social environment, i.e., the parental environment in infants and young children. The notion of endophenotypes, markers of an underlying liability to the disorder, may facilitate detection of genetic risks relative to a complex clinical disorder. Simple genetic association has proven insufficient to explain the spectrum of ADHD. At a primary level of analysis, the consideration of epigenetic regulation of brain signalling mechanisms, dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline is examined. Neurotrophic factors that participate in the neurogenesis, survival, and functional maintenance of brain systems, are involved in neuroplasticity alterations underlying brain disorders, and are implicated in the genetic predisposition to ADHD, but not obviously, nor in a simple or straightforward fashion. In the context of intervention, genetic linkage studies of ADHD pharmacological intervention have demonstrated that associations have fitted the "drug response phenotype," rather than the disorder diagnosis. Despite conflicting evidence for the existence, or not, of genetic associations between disorder diagnosis and genes regulating the structure and function of neurotransmitters and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), associations between symptoms-profiles endophenotypes and single nucleotide polymorphisms appear reassuring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Archer
- Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Box 500, SE-40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marlene Oscar-Berman
- Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, and Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, and Boston VA Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kenneth Blum
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida College of Medicine, and McKnight Brain Institute, Gainesville, FL, USA
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12
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Müller UC, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar JK, Ebstein RP, Eisenberg J, Gill M, Manor I, Miranda A, Oades RD, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant JA, Sonuga-Barke EJS, Thompson M, Faraone SV, Steinhausen HC. The impact of study design and diagnostic approach in a large multi-centre ADHD study. Part 1: ADHD symptom patterns. BMC Psychiatry 2011; 11:54. [PMID: 21473745 PMCID: PMC3082291 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-11-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The International Multi-centre ADHD Genetics (IMAGE) project with 11 participating centres from 7 European countries and Israel has collected a large behavioural and genetic database for present and future research. Behavioural data were collected from 1068 probands with the combined type of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD-CT) and 1446 'unselected' siblings. The aim was to analyse the IMAGE sample with respect to demographic features (gender, age, family status, and recruiting centres) and psychopathological characteristics (diagnostic subtype, symptom frequencies, age at symptom detection, and comorbidities). A particular focus was on the effects of the study design and the diagnostic procedure on the homogeneity of the sample in terms of symptom-based behavioural data, and potential consequences for further analyses based on these data. METHODS Diagnosis was based on the Parental Account of Childhood Symptoms (PACS) interview and the DSM-IV items of the Conners' teacher questionnaire. Demographics of the full sample and the homogeneity of a subsample (all probands) were analysed by using robust statistical procedures which were adjusted for unequal sample sizes and skewed distributions. These procedures included multi-way analyses based on trimmed means and winsorised variances as well as bootstrapping. RESULTS Age and proband/sibling ratios differed between participating centres. There was no significant difference in the distribution of gender between centres. There was a significant interaction between age and centre for number of inattentive, but not number of hyperactive symptoms. Higher ADHD symptom frequencies were reported by parents than teachers. The diagnostic symptoms differed from each other in their frequencies. The face-to-face interview was more sensitive than the questionnaire. The differentiation between ADHD-CT probands and unaffected siblings was mainly due to differences in hyperactive/impulsive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Despite a symptom-based standardized inclusion procedure according to DSM-IV criteria with defined symptom thresholds, centres may differ markedly in probands' ADHD symptom frequencies. Both the diagnostic procedure and the multi-centre design influence the behavioural characteristics of a sample and, thus, may bias statistical analyses, particularly in genetic or neurobehavioral studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ueli C Müller
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Philip Asherson
- MRC Social Genetic Developmental and Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
| | - Tobias Banaschewski
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, J 5, Mannheim, Germany,Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan K Buitelaar
- Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Michael Gill
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Ana Miranda
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Robert D Oades
- Clinic for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Herbert Roeyers
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Aribert Rothenberger
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Joseph A Sergeant
- Department of Clinical Neuropsychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edmund JS Sonuga-Barke
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium,School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | | | - Stephen V Faraone
- Departments of Psychiatry and of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Hans-Christoph Steinhausen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Switzerland,Aalborg Psychiatric Hospital, Aarhus University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark,Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, Institute of Psychology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Understanding the complex etiologies of developmental disorders: behavioral and molecular genetic approaches. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2010; 31:533-44. [PMID: 20814254 PMCID: PMC2953861 DOI: 10.1097/dbp.0b013e3181ef42a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This article has 2 primary goals. First, a brief tutorial on behavioral and molecular genetic methods is provided for readers without extensive training in these areas. To illustrate the application of these approaches to developmental disorders, etiologically informative studies of reading disability (RD), math disability (MD), and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are then reviewed. Implications of the results for these specific disorders and for developmental disabilities as a whole are discussed, and novel directions for future research are highlighted. METHOD Previous family and twin studies of RD, MD, and ADHD are reviewed systematically, and the extensive molecular genetic literatures on each disorder are summarized. To illustrate 4 novel extensions of these etiologically informative approaches, new data are presented from the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center, an ongoing twin study of the etiology of RD, ADHD, MD, and related disorders. CONCLUSIONS RD, MD, and ADHD are familial and heritable, and co-occur more frequently than expected by chance. Molecular genetic studies suggest that all 3 disorders have complex etiologies, with multiple genetic and environmental risk factors each contributing to overall risk for each disorder. Neuropsychological analyses indicate that the 3 disorders are each associated with multiple neuropsychological weaknesses, and initial evidence suggests that comorbidity between the 3 disorders is due to common genetic risk factors that lead to slow processing speed.
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Nigg J, Nikolas M, Burt SA. Measured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2010; 49:863-73. [PMID: 20732623 PMCID: PMC2928573 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To summarize and evaluate the state of knowledge regarding the role of measured gene-by-environment interactions in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. METHOD A selective review of methodologic issues was followed by a systematic search for relevant articles on measured gene-by-environment interactions; the search yielded 16 studies, which are discussed in qualitative fashion. RESULTS Relatively consistent evidence points to the interaction of genotype with psychosocial factors in the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The next step is to identify the mechanisms on the environment side and the gene combinations on the genetic side accounting for this effect. In contrast, evidence for gene-by-environment interactions involving pre- and perinatal risk factors is generally negative or unreplicated. The aggregate effect size for psychosocial interaction with genotype is more than double that for the interaction of pre- and perinatal risks with genotype. Only a small fraction of candidate environments and gene markers has been studied, and multivariate methods to integrate multiple gene or environment markers have yet to be implemented. CONCLUSIONS Gene-by-environment interaction appears likely to prove fruitful in understanding the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Findings to date already suggest new avenues of investigation particularly involving psychosocial mechanisms and their interplay with genotype. Further pursuit of theoretically promising leads is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Nigg
- Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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15
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Shin JH, McNeney B, Graham J. On the use of allelic transmission rates for assessing gene-by-environment interaction in case-parent trios. Ann Hum Genet 2010; 74:439-51. [PMID: 20649530 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1809.2010.00599.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Allelic transmission rates from parents to cases are frequently stratified by an environmental risk factor E and compared, with heterogeneity interpreted as gene-environment interaction or GxE. Though generally invalid, such analyses continue to appear. We revisit why heterogeneity is not equivalent to GxE in a range of settings not considered previously. The objective is a fuller understanding of the bias in transmission rates and what is driving it. Extending previously published findings, we derive parental mating-type probabilities in cases and use them to obtain transmission rates, which we then compare to GxE. Through simulation, we investigate the practical implications of the bias for a transmission-based test of GxE. We find that general population characteristics distort the picture of GxE obtained from transmission rates: the stratum-specific mating-type probabilities under G - E dependence and the allele frequency under independence. Furthermore, the transmission-based test has inflated error rates relative to a likelihood-based test. Our investigation provides further insight into how and why transmission-based tests and descriptive summaries can mislead about GxE. For exploring GxE, we suggest graphical displays of the transmission rates within parental mating types, as they are robust to population stratification and the penetrance model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyung Shin
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
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16
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Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity in children and adults. Putative environmental risk factors for ADHD include toxin and prenatal smoke exposure, low socioeconomic status, and parental marital instability and discord. Genetic associations with ADHD have been found in the dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic neurotransmitter systems, but findings are inconsistent across studies. Herein, we review studies of gene-environment interactions for ADHD to better understand how genetic and environmental risk factors may contribute to the disorder in a nonindependent fashion, which may account in part for the inconsistent findings on genetic associations. Although evidence of interactions between prenatal substance exposure and the dopamine genes DAT1 and DRD4 was found, findings across studies have been mixed. We discuss these findings and the future directions and limitations of current gene-environment research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Ficks
- Emory University, 317 Psychology Building, 532 Kilgo Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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17
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Sonuga-Barke EJS, Oades RD, Psychogiou L, Chen W, Franke B, Buitelaar J, Banaschewski T, Ebstein RP, Gil M, Anney R, Miranda A, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Steinhausen HC, Thompson M, Asherson P, Faraone SV. Dopamine and serotonin transporter genotypes moderate sensitivity to maternal expressed emotion: the case of conduct and emotional problems in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2009; 50:1052-63. [PMID: 19490304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02095.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mothers' positive emotions expressed about their children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with a reduced likelihood of comorbid conduct problems (CP). We examined whether this association with CP, and one with emotional problems (EMO), is moderated by variants within three genes, previously reported to be associated with ADHD and to moderate the impact of environmental risks on conduct and/or emotional problems; the dopamine transporter gene (SLC6A3/DAT1), the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) and the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4/5HTT). METHODS Seven hundred and twenty-eight males between the ages of 5 and 17 with a DSM-IV research diagnosis of combined type ADHD were included in these analyses. Parents and teachers rated children's conduct and emotional problems. Positive maternal expressed emotion (PMEE) was coded by independent observers on comments made during a clinical assessment with the mother based on current or recent medication-free periods. RESULTS Sensitivity to the effects of PMEE on CP was moderated by variants of the DAT1 and 5HTT genes. Only children who did not carry the DAT1 10R/10R or the 5HTT l/l genotypes showed altered levels of CP when exposed to PMEE. The effect was most marked where the child with ADHD had both these genotypes. For EMO, sensitivity to PMEE was found only with those who carried the DAT1 9R/9R. There was no effect of DRD4 on CP or EMO. CONCLUSION The gene-environment interactions observed suggested that genetic make-up can alter the degree of sensitivity an ADHD patients has to their family environment. Further research should focus on distinguishing general sensitivity genotypes from those conferring risk or protective qualities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund J S Sonuga-Barke
- Developmental Brain-Behaviour Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
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