Human osseous intervertebral foramen width

Tomodensitometric bone anatomy of the intervertebral foramen of the lower cervical spine: measurements and comparison of foraminal volume in healthy individuals and patients suffering from cervicobrachial neuralgia due to foraminal stenosis

PURPOSE

Degenerative foraminal stenosis of the cervical spine can lead to cervicobrachial neuralgias. Computed tomography (CT)-scan assists in the diagnosis and evaluation of foraminal stenosis. The main objective of this study is to determine the bony dimensions of the cervical intervertebral foramen and to identify which foraminal measurements are most affected by degenerative disorders of the cervical spine. These data could be applied to the surgical treatment of this pathology, helping surgeons to focus on specific areas during decompression procedures.

METHODS

A descriptive study was conducted between two groups: an asymptomatic one (young people with no evidence of degenerative cervical spine disorders) and a symptomatic one (experiencing cervicobrachial neuralgia due to degenerative foraminal stenosis). Using CT scans, we determined a method allowing measurements of the following foraminal dimensions: foraminal height (FH), foraminal length (FL), foraminal width in its lateral part ((UWPP, MWPP and IWPP (respectively Upper, Medial and Inferior Width of Pedicle Part)) and medial part (UWMP, MWMP and IWMP (respectively Upper, Medial and Inferior Width of Medial Part)), and disk height (DH). Foraminal volume (FV) was calculated considering the above data. Mean volumes were measured in the asymptomatic group and compared to the values obtained in the symptomatic group.

RESULTS

Both groups were made up of 10 patients, and a total of 50 intervertebral discs (100 intervertebral foramina) were analyzed in each group. Comparison of C4C5, C5C6 and C6C7 levels between both groups showed several significant decreases in foraminal dimensions (p < 0.05) as well as in foraminal volume (p < 0.001) in the symptomatic group. The most affected dimensions were UWPP, MWPP, UWMP, MWMP and FV. The most stenotic foraminal areas were the top of the uncus and the posterior edge of the lower plate of the overlying vertebra.

CONCLUSION

Using a new protocol for measuring foraminal volume, the present study refines the current knowledge of the normal and pathological anatomy of the lower cervical spine and allows us to understand the foraminal sites most affected by degenerative stenosis. Those findings can be applied to foraminal stenosis surgeries. According to our results, decompression of the foramen in regard of both uncus osteophytic spurs and inferior plate of the overlying vertebra might be an important step for spinal nerves release.

Bioarchaeological insights into the last plague of Imola (1630-1632)

The plague of 1630-1632 was one of the deadliest plague epidemics to ever hit Northern Italy, and for many of the affected regions, it was also the last. While accounts on plague during the early 1630s in Florence and Milan are frequent, much less is known about the city of Imola. We analyzed the full skeletal assemblage of four mass graves (n = 133 individuals) at the Lazaretto dell'Osservanza, which date back to the outbreak of 1630-1632 in Imola and evaluated our results by integrating new archival sources. The skeletons showed little evidence of physical trauma and were covered by multiple layers of lime, which is characteristic for epidemic mass mortality sites. We screened 15 teeth for Yersinia pestis aDNA and were able to confirm the presence of plague in Imola via metagenomic analysis. Additionally, we studied a contemporaneous register, in which a friar recorded patient outcomes at the lazaretto during the last year of the epidemic. Our multidisciplinary approach combining historical, osteological and genomic data provided a unique opportunity to reconstruct an in-depth picture of the last plague of Imola through the city's main lazaretto.

A Novel, Minimally Invasive Hybrid Technique to Approach Intracanal Herniated Thoracic Discs

BACKGROUND

Multiple options exist for thoracic disc herniation (TDH). However, when a specific technique is chosen, the goal is to avoid the manipulation of the spinal cord, which is already compressed.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a hybrid endoscopic technique for intracanal TDH by combining an oblique paraspinal approach (OPA) and transforaminal full-endoscopic discectomy.

METHODS

We describe the step-by-step operative technique and present the clinical and radiological outcomes of a case series of hybrid endoscopic thoracic discectomy.

RESULTS

A total of 3 patients were treated. We observed the usefulness of an OPA to enlarge the intervertebral foramen through the rigid tubular retractor and the feasibility of a full-endoscopic transforaminal approach to reach intracanal TDHs.

CONCLUSION

Early experience with the hybrid endoscopic technique for TDHs demonstrated acceptable clinical and radiological outcomes in the 3 patients treated; however, a larger sample size and a methodologically advantageous study to compare this procedure with conventional options are necessary to probe the full benefits of the hybrid technique.

Differences in Cross-Sectional Intervertebral Foraminal Area From C3 to C7

STUDY DESIGN

Anatomical comparative study.

OBJECTIVES

Few studies have evaluated foraminal areas in the cervical spine without degenerative changes. The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the mean cross-sectional foraminal areas between the C3/4, C4/5, C5/6, and C6/7 levels while also analyzing specimens for differences between sexes and races.

METHODS

We performed an anatomic study of the intervertebral foramen at 4 levels (C3/4, C4/5, C5/6, C6/7) in 100 skeletally mature osseous specimens. Specimens were selected to obtain equal number of African American and Caucasian males and females (n = 25/group) aged 20 to 40 years at time of death. Foramina were photographed bilaterally with and without a silicone rubber disc. The maximal vertical height and mid-sagittal width of each foramen were digitally measured and the areas were calculated using an ellipse as a model.

RESULTS

The average age at death for all specimens was 30 ± 6 years. The mean cross-sectional area of the C4/5 foramen was significantly smaller compared with the C5/6 (P < .001). C5/6 was significantly narrower than C6/7 (P < .001) foramen with and without disc augmentation. C3/4 was not significantly different from more caudal levels. There was no difference between male and female specimens, while African Americans had smaller foraminal sizes than Caucasians.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the largest anatomical reference of the cervical intervertebral foramen. In a mature spine without facet joint hypertrophy or osteophytic changes, the C4/5 foramen was narrower than C5/6, which was narrower than C6/7. Understanding the relative foraminal areas in the nonpathological cervical spine is crucial to understanding degenerative changes as well as the anatomical changes in pathologies that affect the intervertebral foramen.

Health Patterns of the Etruscan Population (6th–3rd Centuries bc) in Northern Italy: The Case of Spina

A sample of 303 skeletons from the Etruscan necropolis of Spina (Ferrara, Italy, 6th–3rd centuries bc) was examined for paleopathological lesions in order to assess the general health, diseases and quality of life of this Iron Age population. The observed pathologies included porotic hyperostosis, specific and aspecific infections, metabolic and endocrine disorders, tumours and osteoarthritis. A total of 46.7% of adults and 7.7% of subadults showed at least one pathological lesion. Statistical comparisons were made between sexes and adult‐age classes (20–35 years and >35 years) to analyse the prevalence of the lesions. The analysis of porotic hyperostosis and osteoperiostitis allowed to determine the general health status of this group, and the analysis of osteoarthritis allowed to hypothesise a gender division of labour. The results suggest a relatively high‐life expectancy for the time as well as good health and quality of life. The few specific infections and metabolic disorders indicate fairly good nutrition, while the high frequency of porotic hyperostosis can be partly linked to some type of hereditary anaemia. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Clinical anatomy and significance of the thoracic intervertebral foramen: A cadaveric study and review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

The literature is lacking information on the anatomy and the osseous dimensions of the thoracic intervertebral foramen (IVF). We describe the anatomy of the broader area, and we proceed with morphometric data of the vertebrae and the foramina. Depiction of these features is provided with imaging and illustrations. The purpose of this paper is to survey and present the anatomy of the foramen as a whole and provide baseline statistical data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We review relevant literature, and we present data obtained from skeletal samples of known population and sex. One hundred and nineteen thoracic vertebrae of ten cadaveric spines from the prefecture of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, Greece, were selected. Statistical analysis measuring the vertical height and the foraminal width of each vertebra was made in accordance with sex.

RESULTS

No statistically important differences referring to the descriptive data of both sexes were found. However, statistically, important positive correlation between the vertebral height and the foraminal width was observed, especially for men. The components of the foramen including arteries and veins passing through or neighboring it, and the spinal nerves and roots are described and depicted.

CONCLUSIONS

The osseous thoracic IVF reveals a glimpse of the in vivo structure and alterations of its width may be present in back pain and other degenerative diseases. Although it is crucial for surgeries and other interventional procedures of the thoracic spine, little is known about the precise anatomy and dimensions of this anatomical landmark.

Sexual dimorphism in the 7th cervical and 12th thoracic vertebrae from a Mediterranean population

Sex determination is an important task in physical anthropology and forensic medicine. The study sample comprised 121 individuals of known sex, age, and cause of death from San Jose cemetery in Granada (Spain). Eight dimensions were analyzed, and discriminant function analysis was performed for each vertebra to obtain discriminating functions and study the percentage of correct assignations of these functions. The percentage accuracy was approximately 80% for both vertebrae, but varied according to the sex, being higher for the 7th cervical in males and higher for the 12th thoracic in females. As reported in other populations, the greatest dimorphism values were found for the length of the inferior surface of the vertebral body and the width and length of the vertebral foramen of the 7th cervical vertebra and for the length of the inferior surface of the vertebral body of the 12th thoracic vertebra.

Current issues with standards in the measurement and documentation of human skeletal anatomy

Digital modeling of human anatomy has become increasingly important and relies on well-documented quantitative anatomy literature. This type of documentation is common for the spine and pelvis; however, significant issues exist due to the lack of standardization in measurement and technique. Existing literature on quantitative anatomy for the spine and pelvis of white adults (aged 18-65 years, separated into decadal categories) was reviewed from the disciplines of anatomy, manipulative therapy, anthropometrics, occupational ergonomics, biomechanics and forensic science. The data were unified into a single normative model of the sub-axial spine. Two-dimensional orthographic drawings were produced from the 590 individual measurements identified, which informed the development of a 3D digital model. A similar review of full range of motion data was conducted as a meta-analysis and the results were applied to the existing model, providing an inter-connected, articulated digital spine. During these data analysis processes several inconsistencies were observed accompanied by an evidential lack of standardization with measurement and recording of data. These have been categorized as: anatomical terminology; scaling of measurements; measurement methodology, dimension and anatomical reference positions; global coordinate systems. There is inconsistency in anatomical terminology where independent researchers use the same terms to describe different aspects of anatomy or different terms for the same anatomy. Published standards exist for measurement methods of the human body regarding spatial interaction, anthropometric databases, automotive applications, clothing industries and for computer manikins, but none exists for skeletal anatomy. Presentation of measurements often lacks formal structure in clinical publications, seldom providing geometric reference points, therefore making digital reconstruction difficult. Published quantitative data does not follow existing international published standards relating to engineering drawing and visual communication. Large variations are also evident in standards or guidelines used for global coordinate systems across biomechanics, ergonomics, software systems and 3D software applications. This paper identifies where established good practice exists and suggests additional recommendations, informing an improved communication protocol, to assist reconstruction of skeletal anatomy using 3D digital modeling.