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Welte L, Holowka NB, Kelly LA, Arndt A, Rainbow MJ. Mobility of the human foot's medial arch helps enable upright bipedal locomotion. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1155439. [PMID: 37324435 PMCID: PMC10264861 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1155439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing the ability to habitually walk and run upright on two feet is one of the most significant transformations to have occurred in human evolution. Many musculoskeletal adaptations enabled bipedal locomotion, including dramatic structural changes to the foot and, in particular, the evolution of an elevated medial arch. The foot's arched structure has previously been assumed to play a central role in directly propelling the center of mass forward and upward through leverage about the toes and a spring-like energy recoil. However, it is unclear whether or how the plantarflexion mobility and height of the medial arch support its propulsive lever function. We use high-speed biplanar x-ray measurements of foot bone motion on seven participants while walking and running and compare their motion to a subject-specific model without arch recoil. We show that regardless of intraspecific differences in medial arch height, arch recoil enables a longer contact time and favorable propulsive conditions at the ankle for walking upright on an extended leg. The generally overlooked navicular-medial cuneiform joint is primarily responsible for arch recoil in human arches. The mechanism through which arch recoil enables an upright ankle posture may have helped drive the evolution of the longitudinal arch after our last common ancestor with chimpanzees, who lack arch plantarflexion mobility during push-off. Future morphological investigations of the navicular-medial cuneiform joint will likely provide new interpretations of the fossil record. Our work further suggests that enabling medial arch recoil in footwear and surgical interventions may be critical for maintaining the ankle's natural propulsive ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Welte
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Nicholas B Holowka
- Department of Anthropology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Luke A Kelly
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anton Arndt
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
- Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael J Rainbow
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Negishi T, Ito K, Hosoda K, Nagura T, Ota T, Imanishi N, Jinzaki M, Oishi M, Ogihara N. Comparative radiographic analysis of three-dimensional innate mobility of the foot bones under axial loading of humans and African great apes. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:211344. [PMID: 34804579 PMCID: PMC8596007 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The human foot is considered to be morphologically adapted for habitual bipedal locomotion. However, how the mobility and mechanical interaction of the human foot with the ground under a weight-bearing condition differ from those of African great apes is not well understood. We compared three-dimensional (3D) bone kinematics of cadaver feet under axial loading of humans and African great apes using a biplanar X-ray fluoroscopy system. The calcaneus was everted and the talus and tibia were internally rotated in the human foot, but such coupling motion was much smaller in the feet of African great apes, possibly due to the difference in morphology of the foot bones and articular surfaces. This study also found that the changes in the length of the longitudinal arch were larger in the human foot than in the feet of chimpanzees and gorillas, indicating that the human foot is more deformable, possibly to allow storage and release of the elastic energy during locomotion. The coupling motion of the calcaneus and the tibia, and the larger capacity to be flattened due to axial loading observed in the human foot are possibly morphological adaptations for habitual bipedal locomotion that has evolved in the human lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuo Negishi
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Kohta Ito
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Koh Hosoda
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomohiko Ota
- School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Motoharu Oishi
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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Asghar A, Naaz S. The transverse arch in the human feet: A narrative review of its evolution, anatomy, biomechanics and clinical implications. Morphologie 2021; 106:225-234. [PMID: 34419345 DOI: 10.1016/j.morpho.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The dominant characteristics of the human foot are its shock-absorbing capability during walking or gait cycle and its adaptation to uneven surfaces. On the stance phase of the gait, the foot has to be flexible at first for shock absorption and adapt to the terrain; whereas, during the propulsive phase, it has to be dynamically rigid to function as a lever. Foot flexibility and rigidity are mainly controlled at the subtalar and midtarsal joints by tendons and ligaments. The subtalar joint is part of the longitudinal arch, but the midtarsal joint along with the tarsometatarsal joint are components of the transverse arch. However, the existence and functional role of transverse arch in human was challenged by some authors. But recent studies have revealed that the transverse arch has a predominant role in midfoot stiffness (Venkadeshan et al., 2020, & Holowoka et al., 2017). This midfoot stiffness allows the human foot to store elastic energy at the time of heel strike, which is utilized during the push-off mechanism for propulsion, thus making bipedalism more energy-efficient. Moreover, the transverse arch allows the longitudinal arch to be flexible like a lever and, at the same time, makes the arch of the foot rigid to behave like a stiff spring lever. Understanding the role of the transverse arch is obligatory to study the biomechanics of foot injuries and Charcot or diabetic foot. Studies on diabetic foot have shown that the modulation of transverse arch biomechanics and off-loading modalities would improve outcomes in the form of wound-healing and prevention of re-ulceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Asghar
- Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India.
| | - S Naaz
- Department of Anaesthesiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
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Parupia Y, Klaver S, Merchant M, Haas Z, Cobb M, Patel S. Pre and Postoperative Analysis of Flatfoot Reconstruction Sparing the Talonavicular Joint. J Foot Ankle Surg 2021; 60:650-654. [PMID: 33744066 DOI: 10.1053/j.jfas.2020.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Surgical correction of a flatfoot deformity is controversial. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the structural radiographic changes of the flatfoot deformity while maintaining the mobile adapter of the foot. We conducted a retrospective analysis of 56 patients that underwent this procedure comparing their pre- to postoperative angular changes during a follow-up period. The mean age of our study cohort was 53.6 (range, 20-77) years and mean follow-up period was 23 (range, 4-73) months. Radiographic union was achieved in 48 patients (86%). Forty-six patients (82%) had all required radiographs completed through final follow-up visit. We illustrated statistically significant changes to the talonavicular, Meary, talocalcaneal, calcaneal inclination, and talar declination angles, and navicular height at 3 months and final follow-up. This study suggests surgical correction of the flatfoot deformity that fused the subtalar but spared the talonavicular joint appears to achieve and maintain radiographic angular changes and achieve union.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaseer Parupia
- Resident, Kaiser Permanente Sacramento Medical Center - Primary, Sacramento, CA.
| | - Silas Klaver
- Resident, Yakima Podiatry Associates, Yakima, WA
| | | | - Zachary Haas
- Surgeon, Albuquerque Associated Podiatrists, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Matthew Cobb
- Surgeon, Albuquerque Associated Podiatrists, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Sandeep Patel
- Surgeon, Kaiser Permanente Antioch Medical Center, Antioch, CA
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Morphometric analysis of the hominin talus: Evolutionary and functional implications. J Hum Evol 2020; 142:102747. [PMID: 32240884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of bipedalism is a key benchmark in human evolution that has impacted talar morphology. Here, we investigate talar morphological variability in extinct and extant hominins using a 3D geometric morphometric approach. The evolutionary timing and appearance of modern human-like features and their contributions to bipedal locomotion were evaluated on the talus as a whole, each articular facet separately, and multiple combinations of facets. Distinctive suites of features are consistently present in all fossil hominins, despite the presence of substantial interspecific variation, suggesting a potential connection of these suites to bipedal gait. A modern human-like condition evolved in navicular and lateral malleolar facets early in the hominin lineage compared with other facets, which demonstrate more complex morphological variation within Homininae. Interestingly, navicular facet morphology of Australopithecus afarensis is derived in the direction of Homo, whereas more recent hominin species such as Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus sediba retain more primitive states in this facet. Combining the navicular facet with the trochlea and the posterior calcaneal facet as a functional suite, however, distinguishes Australopithecus from Homo in that the medial longitudinal arch had not fully developed in the former. Our results suggest that a more everted foot and stiffer medial midtarsal region are adaptations that coincide with the emergence of bipedalism, whereas a high medial longitudinal arch emerges later in time, within Homo. This study provides novel insights into the emergence of talar morphological traits linked to bipedalism and its transition from a facultative to an obligate condition.
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Holowka NB, Lieberman DE. Rethinking the evolution of the human foot: insights from experimental research. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:221/17/jeb174425. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.174425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Adaptive explanations for modern human foot anatomy have long fascinated evolutionary biologists because of the dramatic differences between our feet and those of our closest living relatives, the great apes. Morphological features, including hallucal opposability, toe length and the longitudinal arch, have traditionally been used to dichotomize human and great ape feet as being adapted for bipedal walking and arboreal locomotion, respectively. However, recent biomechanical models of human foot function and experimental investigations of great ape locomotion have undermined this simple dichotomy. Here, we review this research, focusing on the biomechanics of foot strike, push-off and elastic energy storage in the foot, and show that humans and great apes share some underappreciated, surprising similarities in foot function, such as use of plantigrady and ability to stiffen the midfoot. We also show that several unique features of the human foot, including a spring-like longitudinal arch and short toes, are likely adaptations to long distance running. We use this framework to interpret the fossil record and argue that the human foot passed through three evolutionary stages: first, a great ape-like foot adapted for arboreal locomotion but with some adaptations for bipedal walking; second, a foot adapted for effective bipedal walking but retaining some arboreal grasping adaptations; and third, a human-like foot adapted for enhanced economy during long-distance walking and running that had lost its prehensility. Based on this scenario, we suggest that selection for bipedal running played a major role in the loss of arboreal adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Daniel E. Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Ito K, Hosoda K, Shimizu M, Ikemoto S, Nagura T, Seki H, Kitashiro M, Imanishi N, Aiso S, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Three-dimensional innate mobility of the human foot bones under axial loading using biplane X-ray fluoroscopy. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:171086. [PMID: 29134100 PMCID: PMC5666283 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The anatomical design of the human foot is considered to facilitate generation of bipedal walking. However, how the morphology and structure of the human foot actually contribute to generation of bipedal walking remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the three-dimensional kinematics of the foot bones under a weight-bearing condition using cadaver specimens, to characterize the innate mobility of the human foot inherently prescribed in its morphology and structure. Five cadaver feet were axially loaded up to 588 N (60 kgf), and radiographic images were captured using a biplane X-ray fluoroscopy system. The present study demonstrated that the talus is medioinferiorly translated and internally rotated as the calcaneus is everted owing to axial loading, causing internal rotation of the tibia and flattening of the medial longitudinal arch in the foot. Furthermore, as the talus is internally rotated, the talar head moves medially with respect to the navicular, inducing external rotation of the navicular and metatarsals. Under axial loading, the cuboid is everted simultaneously with the calcaneus owing to the osseous locking mechanism in the calcaneocuboid joint. Such detailed descriptions about the innate mobility of the human foot will contribute to clarifying functional adaptation and pathogenic mechanisms of the human foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohta Ito
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
- Authors for correspondence: Kohta Ito e-mail:
| | - Koh Hosoda
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Shimizu
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Shuhei Ikemoto
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
- Authors for correspondence: Naomichi Ogihara e-mail:
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Holowka NB, O'Neill MC, Thompson NE, Demes B. Chimpanzee ankle and foot joint kinematics: Arboreal versus terrestrial locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:131-147. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary BiologyHarvard UniversityCambridge Massachusetts02138
- Department of AnthropologyStony Brook UniversityStony Brook New York11795
| | - Matthew C. O'Neill
- Department of Basic Medical SciencesUniversity of Arizona College of Medicine‐PhoenixPhoenix Arizona85004
| | - Nathan E. Thompson
- Department of AnatomyNYIT College of Osteopathic MedicineOld Westbury New York11568
- Department of Anatomical SciencesStony Brook University School of MedicineStony Brook New York11795
| | - Brigitte Demes
- Department of Anatomical SciencesStony Brook University School of MedicineStony Brook New York11795
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Holowka NB, O'Neill MC, Thompson NE, Demes B. Chimpanzee and human midfoot motion during bipedal walking and the evolution of the longitudinal arch of the foot. J Hum Evol 2017; 104:23-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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DeSilva J, Bonne-Annee R, Swanson Z, Gill C, Sobel M, Uy J, Gill S. Midtarsal break variation in modern humans: Functional causes, skeletal correlates, and paleontological implications. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 156:543-52. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.M. DeSilva
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - R. Bonne-Annee
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - Z. Swanson
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - C.M. Gill
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Radiology and Pappas Center for Neuro-Oncology; Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School; Boston MA 02114
| | - M. Sobel
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Anthropology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706
| | - J. Uy
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Anthropology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706
| | - S.V. Gill
- Department of Occupational Therapy; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Program in Rehabilitation Sciences (PhD), Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Medicine; Boston University; Boston MA 02118
- Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
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