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Martin-Moya D, Ribot I. Investigating temporal bone variation of colonial populations from St-Lawrence Valley, Quebec: A 3D geometric morphometric approach. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 183:e24885. [PMID: 38146128 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In Quebec, genetic and genealogical research are used to document migratory events and family structures since colonial times, because bioarchaeological analysis is limited by poor skeletal preservation. This article aims to fill this gap by exploring past population structure in the St-Lawrence Valley from the French (1683-1760) and British (1760-1867) regimes using morphological variation of well-preserved temporal bones. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3D geometric morphometrics shape data from seven populations (five Catholics of French descent and two Protestants of British descent; n = 214) were collected from temporal bones. Using Procrustes distances and both MANOVA and Discriminant Function Analysis, morphological differences were measured to calculate affinities patterns among populations. Shape variations were explored with between-group analysis, Mahalanobis distances and quantified by means of Fst estimates using Relethford-Blangero analysis. RESULTS Despite strong affinities between all Catholic cemeteries, all show divergent morphological regional diversity -especially Montreal and the fortified villages dedicated to its defense. Montreal exhibits low increase in morphological variance over three centuries. As our results show no morphological differences between the Catholic and the Protestant cemeteries in Montreal, this fact may highlight the potential presence of Irish or admixed individuals in Montreal cemeteries after the British takeover. DISCUSSION Patterns of morphological diversity highlighted that French colonists did not equally contribute to the descendant populations as reflected by significant interregional variation. Although historical records show that French and English-speaking populations did not tend to admix, morphological affinities between Protestants and Catholics in the beginning of the industrial era in Montreal could reflect the genetic contribution of Catholic Irish migrants. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS All Catholic cemeteries display distinct morphologies, highlighting differential contributions from French colonists and founder effects, which have increased regional differences. Montreal Catholic (French descent) and Protestant (English colonists) cemeteries show significant morphological affinities at the beginning of the industrial era. The Irish migration following the British conquest may explain morphological similarities observed between Catholic and Protestant cemeteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Martin-Moya
- Département d'Anthropologie, Laboratoire de Bioarchéologie Humaine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Isabelle Ribot
- Département d'Anthropologie, Laboratoire de Bioarchéologie Humaine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Morphometric affinities and direct radiocarbon dating of the Toca dos Coqueiros' skull (Serra da Capivara, Brazil). Sci Rep 2022; 12:7807. [PMID: 35550576 PMCID: PMC9098637 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11893-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The biological variation of the earliest skeletons of South America has been intensely debated for the last two centuries. One of the major research constraints has been the limited number of available samples dating to the early Holocene. We here present the first direct radiocarbon-date for the early Holocene human skeleton from Toca dos Coqueiros (Serra da Capivara, Brazil), also known as “Zuzu” (8640 ± 30 BP; 9526–9681 cal years BP). We performed craniometric analyses using exclusively samples from Brazil, to revisit the sex of the skeleton, and to discuss the evolutionary processes involved in the occupation of the continent. The sex of the individual was estimated as a female when compared to late and early Holocene individuals, but as a male when compared only to the early Holocene series. We also found that Zuzu presents the strongest differences with the late Holocene Guajajara individuals, located nearby, and the strongest similarities with the early Holocene series from Lagoa Santa, attesting for solid biological affinities among early Holocene individuals from Brazil, as well as a moderate level of morphological variation among them. This suggests that the early individuals were part of the same heterogeneous lineage, possibly a different one from which late Holocene populations diverged.
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Single RM, Meyer D, Nunes K, Francisco RS, Hünemeier T, Maiers M, Hurley CK, Bedoya G, Gallo C, Hurtado AM, Llop E, Petzl-Erler ML, Poletti G, Rothhammer F, Tsuneto L, Klitz W, Ruiz-Linares A. Demographic history and selection at HLA loci in Native Americans. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241282. [PMID: 33147239 PMCID: PMC7641399 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The American continent was the last to be occupied by modern humans, and native populations bear the marks of recent expansions, bottlenecks, natural selection, and population substructure. Here we investigate how this demographic history has shaped genetic variation at the strongly selected HLA loci. In order to disentangle the relative contributions of selection and demography process, we assembled a dataset with genome-wide microsatellites and HLA-A, -B, -C, and -DRB1 typing data for a set of 424 Native American individuals. We find that demographic history explains a sizeable fraction of HLA variation, both within and among populations. A striking feature of HLA variation in the Americas is the existence of alleles which are present in the continent but either absent or very rare elsewhere in the world. We show that this feature is consistent with demographic history (i.e., the combination of changes in population size associated with bottlenecks and subsequent population expansions). However, signatures of selection at HLA loci are still visible, with significant evidence selection at deeper timescales for most loci and populations, as well as population differentiation at HLA loci exceeding that seen at neutral markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M. Single
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Diogo Meyer
- Departmento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kelly Nunes
- Departmento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Tábita Hünemeier
- Departmento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Martin Maiers
- Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Carolyn K. Hurley
- CW Bill Young Marrow Donor Recruitment and Research Program, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Gabriel Bedoya
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Antioquia Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Carla Gallo
- Laboratorios de Investigación y Desarrollo, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Ana Magdalena Hurtado
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Elena Llop
- Programa de Genética Humana, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Giovanni Poletti
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Francisco Rothhammer
- Programa de Genética Humana, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, Tarapacá University, Arica, Chile
| | - Luiza Tsuneto
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | - William Klitz
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Andrés Ruiz-Linares
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology and Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences and Human Phenome Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- CNRS, EFS, ADES, D Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
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Hubbe M, Terrazas Mata A, Herrera B, Benavente Sanvicente ME, González González A, Rojas Sandoval C, Avilés Olguín J, Acevez Núñez E, Von Cramon-Taubadel N. Morphological variation of the early human remains from Quintana Roo, Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico: Contributions to the discussions about the settlement of the Americas. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227444. [PMID: 31995578 PMCID: PMC6988924 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The human settlement of the Americas has been a topic of intense debate for centuries, and there is still no consensus on the tempo and mode of early human dispersion across the continent. When trying to explain the biological diversity of early groups across North, Central and South America, studies have defended a wide range of dispersion models that tend to oversimplify the diversity observed across the continent. In this study, we aim to contribute to this debate by exploring the cranial morphological affinities of four late Pleistocene/early Holocene specimens recovered from the caves of Quintana Roo, Mexico. The four specimens are among the earliest human remains known in the continent and permit the contextualization of biological diversity present during the initial millennia of human presence in the Americas. The specimens were compared to worldwide reference series through geometric morphometric analyses of 3D anatomical landmarks. Morphological data were analyzed through exploratory visual multivariate analyses and multivariate classification based on Mahalanobis distances. The results show very different patterns of morphological association for each Quintana Roo specimen, suggesting that the early populations of the region already shared a high degree of morphological diversity. This contrasts with previous studies of South American remains and opens the possibility that the initial populations of North America already had a high level of morphological diversity, which was reduced as populations dispersed into the southern continent. As such, the study of these rare remains illustrates that we are probably still underestimating the biological diversity of early Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Hubbe
- Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
- Instituto de Arqueología y Antropología, Universidad Católica del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
- * E-mail:
| | - Alejandro Terrazas Mata
- Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Brianne Herrera
- Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Martha E. Benavente Sanvicente
- Laboratorio de Prehistoria y Evolución del Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | - Noreen Von Cramon-Taubadel
- Department of Anthropology, State University of New York – Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States of America
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Menéndez LP, Rademaker K, Harvati K. Revisiting East–West Skull Patterns and the Role of Random Factors in South America: Cranial Reconstruction and Morphometric Analysis of the Facial Skeleton from Cuncaicha Rockshelter (Southern Peru). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20555563.2019.1703167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lumila Paula Menéndez
- Konrad Lorenz Institute, Klosterneuburg, Austria, and DFG Centre for Advanced Studies “Words, Bones, Genes, Tools”, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Katerina Harvati
- Paleoanthropology, Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, and DFG Centre for Advanced Studies “Words, Bones, Genes, Tools”, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Da-Gloria P, Hubbe M, Neves WA. Lagoa Santa's contribution to the origins and life of early Americans. Evol Anthropol 2018; 27:121-133. [PMID: 29845689 DOI: 10.1002/evan.21587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The region of Lagoa Santa, Central-Eastern Brazil, provides an exceptional archeological record about Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene occupation of the Americas. Since the first interventions made by the Danish naturalist Peter Lund in the 19th century, hundreds of human skeletons have been exhumed in the region. These skeletons are complemented by a rich botanic, faunal, technological, and geomorphological archeological record. We explore here the contributions of Lagoa Santa material to the origins and lifestyle of early Americans, providing an historic background. Cranial morphology of Lagoa Santa skeletons allowed the proposition of a model of two biological components for the occupation of the Americas, in which early Americans are morphologically similar to people of African and Australo-Melanesian origin. Furthermore, the archeological record in the region has revealed an intense use of plant resources, a restricted spatial distribution, and the symbolic elaboration of local hunter-gatherers, unveiling a distinct lifestyle compared to early North American populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Da-Gloria
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Antropologia, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas, Universidade Federal do Pará
| | - Mark Hubbe
- Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo R. P Gustavo Le Paige, Universidad Católica del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile and Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Walter A Neves
- Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos e Ecológicos Humanos, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade de São Paulo
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Kuzminsky SC, Reyes Báez O, Arriaza B, Méndez C, Standen VG, San Román M, Muñoz I, Durán Herrera Á, Hubbe M. Investigating cranial morphological variation of early human skeletal remains from Chile: A 3D geometric morphometric approach. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 165:223-237. [PMID: 29090737 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Archaeological and genetic research has demonstrated that the Pacific Coast was a key route in the early colonization of South America. Research examining South American skeletons >8000 cal BP has revealed differences in cranial morphology between early and late Holocene populations, which may reflect distinct migration events and/or populations. However, genetic, cultural, and some skeletal data contradict this model. Given these discrepancies, this study examines ∼9000 years of prehistory to test the hypothesis that Early skeletons have a distinct cranial morphology from later skeletons. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using 3D digital models, craniofacial landmarks, and geometric morphometric analyses, we compared Early Holocene crania (n = 4) to later Chilean samples (n = 90) frequently absent in continental assessments of craniofacial variation. PCA, Mahalanobis distances, posterior and typicality probabilities were used to examine variation. RESULTS Two of the earliest skeletons from northern Chile show clear affinities to individuals from later sites in the same region. However, the hypothesis cannot be rejected as one Early individual from northern Chile and one individual from inland Patagonia did not always show clear affinities to coastal populations. DISCUSSION Biological affinities among northern populations and other regions of Chile align with genetic and archaeological data, supporting cultural and biological continuity along the Pacific Coast. In Patagonia, archaeological data are in accordance with skeletal differences between the Early inland steppe individual and coastal populations. This study incorporates 3D methods and skeletal datasets not widely used in assessments of biological affinity, thus contributing to a critical body of research examining the ancient population history of western South America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan C Kuzminsky
- Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo R.P Gustavo Le Paige, Universidad Católica del Norte, Gustavo Le Paige 380, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.,Anthropology Department, University of California, 156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California
| | - Omar Reyes Báez
- Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral, Instituto de la Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, Avenida Bulnes 01890 Casilla 113D, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Bernardo Arriaza
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
| | - César Méndez
- Centro de Investigación en Ecosistemas de la Patagonia, Moraleda 16, Coyhaique, Chile
| | - Vivien G Standen
- Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapacá, 18 de Septiembre 2222, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile
| | - Manuel San Román
- Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral, Instituto de la Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, Avenida Bulnes 01890 Casilla 113D, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Iván Muñoz
- Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapacá, 18 de Septiembre 2222, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile
| | | | - Mark Hubbe
- Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo R.P Gustavo Le Paige, Universidad Católica del Norte, Gustavo Le Paige 380, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.,Department of Anthropology, 4034 Smith Laboratory, The Ohio State University, 174 W. 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio
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Turbon D, Arenas C, Cuadras CM. Fueguian crania and the circum-Pacific rim variation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:295-316. [PMID: 28374500 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The Fueguians are descendants of the first settlers of America, a 'relict' isolated geographically for 10,000 years. We compared their cranial variation with other Americans, and samples from Asia and Australia to know whether the modern extinct Fueguians can be considered Paleoamericans or not. MATERIALS AND METHODS Herein we study 176 Fuego-Patagonian skulls, the largest cranial sample to be studied, refined and well documented, using CVA, and the D2 of Mahalanobis. The affinities between populations and sexual dimorphism were jointly studied. RESULTS Terrestrial hunters (Selknam) have a different cranial morphology from sea canoeists (Yamana, Alakaluf) particularly with regard to cranial size and robustness. In the American context, there are extreme differences between the canoeists of Santa Cruz (California) and the Eskimos and canoeists of Fuego-Patagonia in terms of cranial size, prognathism and development of the frontal region. Fueguian canoeists are cranially closer to the Californian ones than to their Fueguian neighbors, the Selknam. Our results favor the hypothesis of two different flows for the origin of the first populators of Tierra del Fuego. DISCUSSION We concluded that the robusticity of some Fuegians (Selknam) might be the result of an allometric pattern of overall robusticity expression well as a result of epigenetics or differential reproduction (Larsen, 2015:264) or hypothetical endocrine changes (Bernal et al. in Am J Hum Biol 2006;18:748-765). When compared with three Australian-Melanesian series, the group comprising Amerindians, Ainu, and Eskimos clusters together as they are all extremely different from the former in terms of both cranial size and shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Turbon
- Zoology and Anthropology Section, Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Avda Diagonal 643, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - C Arenas
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Avda Diagonal 643, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - C M Cuadras
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Avda Diagonal 643, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
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Herrera B, Peart D, Hernandez N, Spradley K, Hubbe M. Morphological variation among late holocene Mexicans: Implications for discussions about the human occupation of the Americas. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:75-84. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brianne Herrera
- Department of Anthropology; The Ohio State University; Columbus Ohio
| | - Daniel Peart
- Department of Anthropology; The Ohio State University; Columbus Ohio
| | - Nicole Hernandez
- Department of Anthropology; The Ohio State University; Columbus Ohio
| | - Kate Spradley
- Department of Anthropology; Texas State University; San Marcos Texas
| | - Mark Hubbe
- Department of Anthropology; The Ohio State University; Columbus Ohio
- Instituto de Arqueología y Antropología; Universidad Católica del Norte; Chile
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von Cramon-Taubadel N, Strauss A, Hubbe M. Evolutionary population history of early Paleoamerican cranial morphology. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1602289. [PMID: 28261661 PMCID: PMC5321447 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1602289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The nature and timing of the peopling of the Americas is a subject of intense debate. In particular, it is unclear whether high levels of between-group craniometric diversity in South America result from multiple migrations or from local diversification processes. Previous attempts to explain this diversity have largely focused on testing alternative dispersal or gene flow models, reaching conflicting or inconclusive results. Here, a novel analytical framework is applied to three-dimensional geometric morphometric data to partition the effects of population divergence from geographically mediated gene flow to understand the ancestry of the early South Americans in the context of global human history. The results show that Paleoamericans share a last common ancestor with contemporary Native American groups outside, rather than inside, the Americas. Therefore, and in accordance with some recent genomic studies, craniometric data suggest that the New World was populated by multiple waves of dispersion from northeast Asia throughout the late Pleistocene and early Holocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreen von Cramon-Taubadel
- Buffalo Human Evolutionary Morphology Lab, Department of Anthropology, University at Buffalo, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 14261, USA
| | - André Strauss
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Paleoanthropology, Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Tübingen D-72070, Germany
| | - Mark Hubbe
- Instituto de Arqueología y Antropología, Universidad Católica del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
- Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 4048 Smith Laboratory, 174 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Early South Americans Cranial Morphological Variation and the Origin of American Biological Diversity. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138090. [PMID: 26465141 PMCID: PMC4605489 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent South Americans have been described as presenting high regional cranial morphological diversity when compared to other regions of the world. This high diversity is in accordance with linguistic and some of the molecular data currently available for the continent, but the origin of this diversity has not been satisfactorily explained yet. Here we explore if this high morphological variation was already present among early groups in South America, in order to refine our knowledge about the timing and origins of the modern morphological diversity. Between-group (Fst estimates) and within-group variances (trace of within-group covariance matrix) of the only two early American population samples available to date (Lagoa Santa and Sabana de Bogotá) were estimated based on linear craniometric measurements and compared to modern human cranial series representing six regions of the world, including the Americas. The results show that early Americans present moderate within-group diversity, falling well within the range of modern human groups, despite representing almost three thousand years of human occupation. The between-group variance apportionment is very low between early Americans, but is high among recent South American groups, who show values similar to the ones observed on a global scale. Although limited to only two early South American series, these results suggest that the high morphological diversity of native South Americans was not present among the first human groups arriving in the continent and must have originated during the Middle Holocene, possibly due to the arrival of new morphological diversity coming from Asia during the Holocene.
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