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Bleuze MM. Changes in limb bone diaphyseal structure in chimpanzees during development. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 184:e24942. [PMID: 38602254 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study tests if femoral and humeral cross-sectional geometry (CSG) and cross-sectional properties (CSPs) in an ontogenetic series of wild-caught chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ssp.) reflect locomotor behavior during development. The goal is to clarify the relationship between limb bone structure and locomotor behavior during ontogeny in Pan. MATERIALS AND METHODS The latex cast method was used to reconstruct cross sections at the midshaft femur and mid-distal humerus. Second moments of area (SMAs) (Ix, Iy, Imax, Imin), which are proportional to bending rigidity about a specified axis, and the polar SMA (J), which is proportional to average bending rigidity, were calculated at section locations. Cross-sectional shape (CSS) was assessed from Ix/Iy and Imax/Imin ratios. Juvenile and adult subsamples were compared. RESULTS Juveniles and adults have significantly greater femoral J compared to humeral J. Mean interlimb proportions of J are not significantly different between the groups. There is an overall decreasing trend in diaphyseal circularity between the juvenile phase of development and adulthood, although significant differences are only found in the humerus. DISCUSSION Juvenile chimpanzee locomotion includes forelimb- and hindlimb-biased behaviors. Juveniles and adults preferentially load their hindlimbs relative to their forelimbs. This may indicate similar locomotor behavior, although other explanations including a diversity of hindlimb-biased locomotor behaviors in juveniles cannot be ruled out. Different ontogenetic trends in forelimb and hindlimb CSS are consistent with limb bone CSG reflecting functional adaptation, albeit the complex nature of bone functional adaptation requires cautious interpretations of skeletal functional morphology from biomechanical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele M Bleuze
- Institutional affiliation: Department of Anthropology, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Druelle F, Özçelebi J, Marchal F, Berillon G. Development of bipedal walking in olive baboons, Papio anubis: A kinematic analysis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2022; 177:719-734. [PMID: 36787778 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although extant nonhuman primates are not habitual bipeds, they are able to walk bipedally from an early age. In humans, children improve their walking skills through developmental processes and learning experience. In nonhuman primates, infants do not routinely experience bipedalism and their musculoskeletal system gradually specializes for other locomotor modes. The aim of this study is to explore the development of occasional bipedal walking in olive baboon and to test whether the postural adjustments change with age. MATERIALS AND METHODS We collected kinematics and spatiotemporal parameters of bipedal gait in an ontogenetic sample of 24 baboons. Data were collected at the primatology station of the CNRS (France) and a total of 47 bipedal strides were extracted for the present analysis. RESULTS Adults and adolescents walk bipedally in the same way, and the average kinematic pattern is similar across the age-classes. Infants walk bipedally with longer duty factor, they present larger movement amplitude of the thigh and the amplitude of the knee joint decreases with speed. In contrast, older baboons increase the amplitude of the knee and ankle joints with speed. DISCUSSION In a non-adapted biped, the postural adjustments of bipedal walking vary with age. In infant baboons, the balance requirements are likely to be higher and these are solved by adopting a "blocking strategy". In older baboons, the postural adjustments are focused on the lower limb and the movements increase with speed. These results may echo, in some respects, the developmental sequence of the intersegmental coordination described in the ontogeny of human locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- UMR 7194 (Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique), CNRS-Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle-UPVD, Paris, France.,Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,UAR 846, Primatology Station-Celphedia, CNRS, Rousset, France
| | - Jonathan Özçelebi
- UMR 7194 (Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique), CNRS-Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle-UPVD, Paris, France.,UMR 7268 (Anthropologie Bio-Culturelle, Droit, Ethique et Santé), CNRS-Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - François Marchal
- UMR 7268 (Anthropologie Bio-Culturelle, Droit, Ethique et Santé), CNRS-Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Gilles Berillon
- UMR 7194 (Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique), CNRS-Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle-UPVD, Paris, France.,UAR 846, Primatology Station-Celphedia, CNRS, Rousset, France
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Iijima M, Munteanu VD, Elsey RM, Blob RW. Ontogenetic changes in limb posture, kinematics, forces and joint moments in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). J Exp Biol 2021; 224:273379. [PMID: 34746961 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
As animals increase in size, common patterns of morphological and physiological scaling may require them to perform behaviors such as locomotion while experiencing a reduced capacity to generate muscle force and an increased risk of tissue failure. Large mammals are known to manage increased mechanical demands by using more upright limb posture. However, the presence of such size-dependent changes in limb posture has rarely been tested in animals that use non-parasagittal limb kinematics. Here, we used juvenile to subadult American alligators (total length 0.46-1.27 m, body mass 0.3-5.6 kg) and examined their limb kinematics, forces, joint moments and center of mass (CoM) to test for ontogenetic shifts in posture and limb mechanics. Larger alligators typically walked with a more adducted humerus and femur and a more extended knee. Normalized peak joint moments reflected these postural patterns, with shoulder and hip moments imposed by the ground reaction force showing relatively greater magnitudes in the smallest individuals. Thus, as larger alligators use more upright posture, they incur relatively smaller joint moments than smaller alligators, which could reduce the forces that the shoulder and hip adductors of larger alligators must generate. The CoM shifted nonlinearly from juveniles through subadults. The more anteriorly positioned CoM in small alligators, together with their compliant hindlimbs, contributes to their higher forelimb and lower hindlimb normalized peak vertical forces in comparison to larger alligators. Future studies of alligators that approach maximal adult sizes could give further insight into how animals with non-parasagittal limb posture modulate locomotor patterns as they increase in mass and experience changes in the CoM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Iijima
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA.,Nagoya University Museum, Furocho, Chikusa-Ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
| | - V David Munteanu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, 5476 Grand Chenier Highway, Grand Chenier, LA 70643, USA
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Druelle F, Supiot A, Meulemans S, Schouteden N, Molina-Vila P, Rimbaud B, Aerts P, Berillon G. The quadrupedal walking gait of the olive baboon, Papio anubis: an exploratory study integrating kinematics and EMG. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:271005. [PMID: 34292320 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Primates exhibit unusual quadrupedal features (e.g. diagonal gaits, compliant walk) compared with other quadrupedal mammals. Their origin and diversification in arboreal habitats have certainly shaped the mechanics of their walking pattern to meet the functional requirements necessary for balance control in unstable and discontinuous environments. In turn, the requirements for mechanical stability probably conflict with mechanical energy exchange. In order to investigate these aspects, we conducted an integrative study on quadrupedal walking in the olive baboon (Papio anubis) at the Primatology station of the CNRS in France. Based on kinematics, we describe the centre of mass mechanics of the normal quadrupedal gait performed on the ground, as well as in different gait and substrate contexts. In addition, we studied the muscular activity of six hindlimb muscles using non-invasive surface probes. Our results show that baboons can rely on an inverted pendulum-like exchange of energy (57% on average, with a maximal observed value of 84%) when walking slowly (<0.9 m s-1) with a tight limb phase (∼55%) on the ground using diagonal sequence gaits. In this context, the muscular activity is similar to that of other quadrupedal mammals, thus reflecting the primary functions of the muscles for limb movement and support. In contrast, walking on a suspended branch generates kinematic and muscular adjustments to ensure better control and to maintain stability. Finally, walking using the lateral sequence gait increases muscular effort and reduces the potential for high recovery rates. The present exploratory study thus supports the assumption that primates are able to make use of an inverted pendulum mechanism on the ground using a diagonal walking gait, yet a different footfall pattern and substrate appear to influence muscular effort and efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique, UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD, 75116 Paris, France.,Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France.,Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Anthony Supiot
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Robert Debré University Hospital, 75004 Paris, France
| | - Silke Meulemans
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Niels Schouteden
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.,Monde Sauvage Safari Parc, 4920 Aywaille, Belgium
| | - Pablo Molina-Vila
- Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | - Brigitte Rimbaud
- Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | - Peter Aerts
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, University of Ghent, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique, UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD, 75116 Paris, France.,Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
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Vanhoof MJM, van Leeuwen T, Galletta L, Vereecke EE. The forearm and hand musculature of semi-terrestrial rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and arboreal gibbons (fam.Hylobatidae). Part II. Quantitative analysis. J Anat 2021; 238:321-337. [PMID: 33011967 PMCID: PMC7812139 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonhuman primates have a highly diverse locomotor repertoire defined by an equally diverse hand use. Based on how primates use their hands during locomotion, we can distinguish between terrestrial and arboreal taxa. The 'arboreal' hand is likely adapted towards high wrist mobility and grasping, whereas the 'terrestrial' hand will show adaptations to loading. While the morphology of the forearm and hand bones have been studied extensively, functional adaptations in the forearm and hand musculature to locomotor behaviour have been documented only scarcely. In this paper, we investigate the forelimb musculature of the highly arboreal gibbons (including Hylobates lar,Hylobates pileatus,Nomascus leucogenys,Nomascus concolor and Symphalangus syndactylus) and compare this with the musculature of the semi-terrestrial rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Anatomical data from previous dissections on knuckle-walking bonobos (Pan paniscus) and bipedal humans (Homo sapiens) are also included to further integrate the analyses in the scope of catarrhine hand adaptation. This study indicates that the overall configuration of the arm and hand musculature of these primates is very similar but there are some apparent differences in relative size which can be linked to differences in forelimb function and which might be related to their specific locomotor behaviour. In macaques, there is a large development of wrist deviators, wrist and digital flexors, and m. triceps brachii, as these muscles are important during the different phases of palmi- and digitigrade quadrupedal walking to stabilize the wrist and elbow. In addition, their m. flexor carpi ulnaris is the most important contributor to the total force-generating capacity of the wrist flexors and deviators, and is needed to counteract the adducting torque at the elbow joint during quadrupedal walking. Gibbons show a relatively high force-generating capacity in their forearm rotators, wrist and digital flexors, which are important muscles in brachiation to actively regulate forward movement of the body. The results also stress the importance of the digital flexors in bonobos, during climbing and clambering, and in humans, which is likely linked to our advanced manipulation skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie J. M. Vanhoof
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
| | - Timo van Leeuwen
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
| | - Lorenzo Galletta
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesDeakin UniversityWaurn PoundsVictoriaAustralia
| | - Evie E. Vereecke
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
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Druelle F, Schoonaert K, Aerts P, Nauwelaerts S, Stevens JMG, D'Août K. Segmental morphometrics of bonobos (Pan paniscus): are they really different from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)? J Anat 2018; 233:843-853. [PMID: 30294787 PMCID: PMC6231171 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The inertial properties of body segments reflect performance and locomotor habits in primates. While Pan paniscus is generally described as more gracile, lighter in body mass, and as having relatively longer and heavier hindlimbs than Pan troglodytes, both species exhibit very similar patterns of (quadrupedal and bipedal) kinematics, but show slightly different locomotor repertoires. We used a geometric model to estimate the inertial properties for all body segments (i.e. head, trunk, upper and lower arms, hand, thigh, shank and foot) using external length and diameter measurements of 12 anaesthetized bonobos (eight adults and four immatures). We also calculated whole limb inertial properties. When we compared absolute and relative segment morphometric and inertial variables between bonobos and chimpanzees, we found that adult bonobos are significantly lighter than adult chimpanzees. The bonobo is also shorter in head length, upper and lower arm lengths, and foot length, and is generally lighter in most absolute segment mass values (except head and hand). In contrast, the bonobo has a longer trunk. When scaled relative to body mass, most differences disappear between the two species. Only the longer trunk and the shorter head of the bonobo remain apparent, as well as the lighter thigh compared with the chimpanzee. We found similar values of natural pendular periods of the limbs in both species, despite differences in absolute limb lengths, masses, mass centres (for the hindlimb) and moments of inertia. While our data contradict the commonly accepted view that bonobos have relatively longer and heavier hindlimbs than chimpanzees, they are consistent with the observed similarities in the quadrupedal and bipedal kinematics between these species. The morphological differences between both species are more subtle than those previously described from postcranial osteological materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
| | - Kirsten Schoonaert
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
| | - Peter Aerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Department of Movement and Sports SciencesUniversity of GhentGentBelgium
| | - Sandra Nauwelaerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology GroupUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
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Young JW, Shapiro LJ. Developments in development: What have we learned from primate locomotor ontogeny? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 165 Suppl 65:37-71. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyNortheast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED)Rootstown Ohio, 44272
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of TexasAustin Texas, 78712
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Druelle F, Young J, Berillon G. Behavioral implications of ontogenetic changes in intrinsic hand and foot proportions in olive baboons (Papio Anubis). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 165:65-76. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, Department of Biology; University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1; Antwerpen, B-2610 Belgium
- Primatology Station of the CNRS, UPS 846, RD 56; Rousset-sur-Arc, 13790 France
| | - Jesse Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology; Northeast Ohio Medical University, NEOMED 4209 State Route 44; Rootstown Ohio 44272
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Primatology Station of the CNRS, UPS 846, RD 56; Rousset-sur-Arc, 13790 France
- Département de Préhistoire; Musée de L'Homme, UMR 7194 CNRS-MNHN, Place du Trocadéro; Paris, 75116 France
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Intra-individual variation in hand postures during terrestrial locomotion in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Primates 2017; 59:61-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s10329-017-0619-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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