Azopyridine Aqueous Electrochemistry Enables Superior Organic AZIBs

Azo compounds (AZO), such as azobenzene, are classic organic electrode materials featuring a redox potential close to Zn/Zn2+. Recent studies show that azobenzene could work as a cathode in aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs), providing a voltage output of around 0.7 V. However, the energy storage mechanism of AZO cathodes in AZIBs remains unclear, and their practical usage in AZIBs is hindered by the low voltage. In this study, azopyridine isomers, the hydrophilic analogues of azobenzene, were adopted as cathodes for AZIBs, and the energy storage mechanism was unveiled through aqueous electrochemical studies. Through in situ electrochemical characterizations and theoretical computations, we reveal that both the electron-withdrawing effect of the pyridyl group and the H+-involved -N = N-/-NH-NH- redox reaction uplift the redox potential of the azopyridine cathodes. These findings led to the first AZO-based AZIB, providing a voltage output of 1.4 V. The proposed air-stable AZIBs deliver a high energy/power density and a capacity of around 200 mAh g-1. This work discovers different azopyridine electrochemistry in aqueous and organic electrolytes and enabling AZIBs to outperform its competitors from the AZO family.

Ionic Liquid@Metal-Organic Framework as a Solid Electrolyte in a Lithium-Ion Battery: Current Performance and Perspective at Molecular Level

Searching for a suitable electrolyte in a lithium-ion battery is a challenging task. The electrolyte must not only be chemically and mechanically stable, but also be able to transport lithium ions efficiently. Ionic liquid incorporated into a metal-organic framework (IL@MOF) has currently emerged as an interesting class of hybrid material that could offer excellent electrochemical properties. However, the understanding of the mechanism and factors that govern its fast ionic conduction is crucial as well. In this review, the characteristics and potential use of IL@MOF as an electrolyte in a lithium-ion battery are highlighted. The importance of computational methods is emphasized as a comprehensive tool to investigate the atomistic behavior of IL@MOF and its interaction in electrochemical environments.

A low-cost and high-loading viologen-based organic electrode for rechargeable lithium batteries

Organic active materials are regarded as a very promising choice for lithium batteries because of several outstanding advantages such as low-cost, flexible tunability and pollution-free sources. Viologen compounds are attractive two-electron storage materials with low redox potentials, which are mainly used as anolytes in redox flow batteries (RFBs) considering their high solubility in electrolytes. However, due to their relatively large molecular weight and low density, it is difficult to prepare high-loading and stable-cycling electrodes for lithium battery application. In this research, by adopting 4,4'-bipyridine as the raw material and combining salification with a high-energy ball milling method, a low-solubility and high-stability viologen carbon-coated composite, ethyl viologen dihexafluorophosphate-Ketjen black (EV-KB), is synthesized. Then, by optimizing the electrode preparation process, a high-loading viologen-based electrode is successfully prepared. Salification effectively reduces the solubility of viologen compounds in the electrolyte so that the EV-KB composite can be used in lithium batteries. At the same time, it is pointed out that current collectors and slurry solvents play an important role in achieving the high-loading electrode. By deliberately selecting carbon paper as the current collector and ethanol as the solvent, the EV-KB composite organic electrode with a loading up to 1.5-9 mg cm-2 can achieve a specific capacity of 106-79 mA h g-1 for 400 stable cycles with a coulombic efficiency of 96% as well as a good rate capability. The synthesis method and electrode preparation optimization process introduced in this paper provide a reference for other types of organic active materials to be used in high-loading lithium batteries.

Liquid-Free All-Solid-State Zinc Batteries and Encapsulation-Free Flexible Batteries Enabled by In Situ Constructed Polymer Electrolyte

Zn batteries are usually considered as safe aqueous systems that are promising for flexible batteries. On the other hand, any liquids, including water, being encapsulated in a deformable battery may result in problems. Developing completely liquid-free all-solid-state Zn batteries needs high-quality solid-state electrolytes (SSEs). Herein, we demonstrate in situ polymerized amorphous solid poly(1,3-dioxolane) electrolytes, which show high Zn ion conductivity of 19.6 mS cm^-1 at room temperature, low interfacial impedance, highly reversible Zn plating/stripping over 1800 h cycles, uniform and dendrite-free Zn deposition, and non-dry properties. The in-plane interdigital-structure device with the electrolyte completely exposed to the open atmosphere can be operated stably for over 30 days almost without weight loss or electrochemical performance decay. Furthermore, the sandwich-structure device can normally operate over 40 min under exposure to fire. Meanwhile, the interfacial impedance and the capacity using in situ-formed solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) remain almost unchanged after various bending tests, a key criterion for flexible/wearable devices. Our study demonstrates an approach for SSEs that fulfill the requirement of no liquid and mechanical robustness for practical solid-state Zn batteries.

All-Solid-State Lithium-Organic Batteries Comprising Single-Ion Polymer Nanoparticle Electrolytes

Advances in lithium battery technologies necessitate improved energy densities, long cycle lives, fast charging, safe operation, and environmentally friendly components. This study concerns lithium-organic batteries comprising bioinspired poly(4-vinyl catechol) (P4VC) cathode materials and single-ion conducting polymer nanoparticle electrolytes. The controlled synthesis of P4VC results in a two-step redox reaction with voltage plateaus at around 3.1 and 3.5 V, as well as a high initial specific capacity of 352 mAh g^-1 . The use of single-ion nanoparticle electrolytes enables high electrochemical stabilities up to 5.5 V, a high lithium transference number of 0.99, high ionic conductivities, ranging from 0.2×10^-3 to 10^-3  S cm^-1 , and stable storage moduli of >10 MPa at 25-90 °C. Lithium cells can deliver 165 mAh g^-1 at 39.7 mA g^-1 for 100 cycles and stable specific capacities of >100 mAh g^-1 at a high current density of 794 mA g^-1 for 500 cycles. As the first successful demonstration of solid-state single-ion polymer electrolytes in environmentally benign and cost-effective lithium-organic batteries, this work establishes a future research avenue for advancing lithium battery technologies.

A Self-Polymerized Nitro-Substituted Conjugated Carbonyl Compound as High-Performance Cathode for Lithium-Organic Batteries

Conjugated carbonyl compounds have received much attention as cathode materials for developing green lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, their high dissolution and poor electronic conductivity in organic electrolyte restrict their further application. Herein, a self-polymerized nitro-substituted conjugated carbonyl compound (2,7-dinitropyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone, PT-2 NO₂ ) is applied as a high-performance cathode material for LIBs. PT-2 NO₂ exhibits a high reversible capacity of 153.9 mAh g^-1 at 50 mA g^-1 after 120 cycles, which is higher than that of other substituted compounds. Detailed characterization and theoretical calculations have testified that PT-2 NO₂ is transformed into an azo polymer through an irreversible reductive coupling reaction in the first discharge process, and then carbonyl and azo groups reversibly react with Li ions in subsequent cycles. In addition, this azo polymer is also synthesized and applied as the electrode material, which shows similar electrochemical performance to PT-2 NO₂ but with higher initial coulombic efficiency. Thus, this work provides a simple but effectively way to construct organic cathode materials with multiple redox sites for green and high-performance LIBs.

Microdroplet synthesis of azo compounds with simple microfluidics-based pH control

Conventional solution-phase synthesis of azo compounds is complicated by the need for precise pH and temperature control, high concentrations of pH control reagents, and by-product removal. In this work, we exploited the advantages of microdroplet chemistry to realize the simple and highly efficient synthesis of an azo compound using microfluidics-based pH control. Owing to the small size of microdroplets, heat exchange between a microdroplet and its environment is extremely fast. Furthermore, chemical reactions in microdroplets occur rapidly due to the short diffusion distance and vortex flow. Formation of the azo compound reached completion in less than 3 s at room temperature, compared with 1 h at 0 °C under conventional conditions. pH control was simple, and the pH control reagent concentration could be reduced to less than one-tenth of that used in the conventional method. No by-products were generated, and thus this procedure did not require a recrystallization step. The time course of the chemical reaction was elucidated by observing the growth of azo compound microcrystals in droplets at various locations along the channel corresponding to different mixing times.

Conventional solution-phase synthesis of azo compounds is complicated by the need for precise pH and temperature control, high concentrations of pH control reagents, and by-product removal. The microdroplet synthesis method has solved these problems.

Electrochemically primed functional redox mediator generator from the decomposition of solid state electrolyte

Recent works into sulfide-type solid electrolyte materials have attracted much attention among the battery community. Specifically, the oxidative decomposition of phosphorus and sulfur based solid state electrolyte has been considered one of the main hurdles towards practical application. Here we demonstrate that this phenomenon can be leveraged when lithium thiophosphate is applied as an electrochemically “switched-on” functional redox mediator-generator for the activation of commercial bulk lithium sulfide at up to 70 wt.% lithium sulfide electrode content. X-ray adsorption near-edge spectroscopy coupled with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and Raman indicate a catalytic effect of generated redox mediators on the first charge of lithium sulfide. In contrast to pre-solvated redox mediator species, this design decouples the lithium sulfide activation process from the constraints of low electrolyte content cell operation stemming from pre-solvated redox mediators. Reasonable performance is demonstrated at strict testing conditions.

The decomposition of solid state electrolyte material has been well-known in the literature. Here the authors report that the same decomposition process can be leveraged to act as a source of redox mediator that is only activated at certain voltages for application in Li₂S based cathodes.