Self‐Immolative Activation of β‐Galactosidase‐Responsive Probes for In Vivo MR Imaging in Mouse Models

MR Imaging Reveals Dynamic Aggregation of Multivalent Glycoconjugates in Aqueous Solution

Glycoconjugates forming from the conjugation of carbohydrates to other biomolecules, such as proteins, lipids, or other carbohydrates, are essential components of mammalian cells and are involved in numerous biological processes. Due to the capability of sugars to form multiple hydrogen bonds, many synthetic glycoconjugates are desirable biocompatible platforms for imaging, diagnostics, drugs, and supramolecular self-assemblies. Herein, we present a multimeric galactose functionalized paramagnetic gadolinium (Gd(III)) chelate that displays spontaneous dynamic aggregation in aqueous conditions. The dynamic aggregation of the Gd(III) complex was shown by the concentration-dependent magnetic resonance (MR) relaxation measurements, nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion (NMRD) analysis, and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Notably, these data showed a nonlinear relationship between magnetic resonance relaxation rate and concentrations (0.03-1.35 mM), and a large DLS hydrodynamic radius was observed in the high-concentration solutions. MR phantom images were acquired to visualize real-time dynamic aggregation behaviors in aqueous solutions. The in situ visualization of the dynamic self-assembling process of multivalent glycoconjugates has rarely been reported.

Molecular Engineering of Self-Immolative Bioresponsive MR Probes

Real-time detection of bio-event in whole animals provides essential information for understanding biological and therapeutic processes. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging represents a non-invasive approach to generating three-dimensional anatomic images with high spatial-temporal resolution and unlimited depth penetration. We have developed several self-immolative enzyme-activatable agents that provide excellent in vivo contrast and function as gene expression reporters. Here, we describe a vast improvement in image contrast over our previous generations of these bioresponsive agents based on a new pyridyl-carbamate Gd(III) complex. The pyridyl-carbamate-based agent has a very low MR relaxivity in the "off-state" (r1 = 1.8 mM-1 s-1 at 1.41 T). However, upon enzymatic processing, it generates a significantly higher relaxivity with a Δr1 = 106% versus Δr1 ∼ 20% reported previously. Single X-ray crystal and nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion analyses offer mechanistic insights regarding MR signal enhancement at the molecular scale. This work demonstrates a pyridyl-carbamate-based self-immolative molecular platform for the construction of enzymatic bio-responsive MR agents, which can be adapted to a wide range of other targets for exploring stimuli-responsive materials and biomedical applications.

Fluorescent Probes Based on AIEgen-Mediated Polyelectrolyte Assemblies for Manipulating Intramolecular Motion and Magnetic Relaxivity

Uniting photothermal therapy (PTT) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) holds great potential in nanotheranostics. However, the extensively utilized hydrophobicity-driven assembling strategy not only restricts the intramolecular motion-induced PTT, but also blocks the interactions between MR agents and water. Herein, we report an aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen)-mediated polyelectrolyte nanoassemblies (APN) strategy, which bestows a unique "soft" inner microenvironment with good water permeability. Femtosecond transient spectra verify that APN well activates intramolecular motion from the twisted intramolecular charge transfer process. This de novo APN strategy uniting synergistically three factors (rotational motion, local motion, and hydration number) brings out high MR relaxivity. For the first time, APN strategy has successfully modulated both intramolecular motion and magnetic relaxivity, achieving fluorescence lifetime imaging of tumor spheroids and spatio-temporal MRI-guided high-efficient PTT.

Designing Protein-Based Probes for Sensing Biological Analytes with Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Genetically encoded sensors provide unique advantages for monitoring biological analytes with molecular and cellular-level specificity. While sensors derived from fluorescent proteins represent staple tools in biological imaging, these probes are limited to optically accessible preparations owing to physical curbs on light penetration. In contrast to optical methods, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be used to noninvasively look inside intact organisms at any arbitrary depth and over large fields of view. These capabilities have spurred the development of innovative methods to connect MRI readouts with biological targets using protein-based probes that are in principle genetically encodable. Here, we highlight the state-of-the-art in MRI-based biomolecular sensors, focusing on their physical mechanisms, quantitative characteristics, and biological applications. We also describe how innovations in reporter gene technology are creating new opportunities to engineer MRI sensors that are sensitive to dilute biological targets.

Enzyme Control Over Ferric Iron Magnetostructural Properties

Fe³⁺ complexes in aqueous solution can exist as discrete mononuclear species or multinuclear magnetically coupled species. Stimuli-driven change to Fe³⁺ speciation represents a powerful mechanistic basis for magnetic resonance sensor technology, but ligand design strategies to exert precision control of aqueous Fe³⁺ magnetostructural properties are entirely underexplored. In pursuit of this objective, we rationally designed a ligand to strongly favor a dinuclear μ-oxo-bridged and antiferromagnetically coupled complex, but which undergoes carboxylesterase mediated transformation to a mononuclear high-spin Fe³⁺ chelate resulting in substantial T₁ -relaxivity increase. The data communicated demonstrate proof of concept for a novel and effective strategy to exert biochemical control over aqueous Fe³⁺ magnetic, structural, and relaxometric properties.

A turn on fluorescent assay for real time determination of β-galactosidase and its application in living cell imaging

In recent years, fluorescent probes based on chemical reactions have been widely investigated as a powerful and noninvasive method for the diagnosis of diseases. β-Galactosidase (β-gal), a typical lysosomal glycosidase, over expressed in senescent cells and primary ovarian cancer cells, which has been considered as an important biomarker cell senescence and primary ovarian cancers. Fluorescent probes for the determination of β-gal provide an excellent choice for visualization of cell senescence. In this work, a turn on fluorescent probe (HBT-gal) for β-gal activity was developed based on the enzymatic hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds. HBT-gal showed little fluorescence in aqueous buffer excited at 415 nm, while emitted green fluorescence centered at ∼ 492 nm upon incubated with β-gal. The sensing scheme showed high selectivity and sensitivity for β-gal activity with a limit of detection calculated as low as 0.19 mU/mL. Moreover, HBT-gal was successfully applied to image β-gal activity in senescent Hep G2 cells treated with H₂O₂. Therefore, probe HBT-gal demonstrated a potential usage for the determination of cell senescence using β-gal as a biomarker.

A guide to assessing cellular senescence in vitro and in vivo

Cellular senescence is a physiological mechanism whereby a proliferating cell undergoes a stable cell cycle arrest upon damage or stress and elicits a secretory phenotype. This highly dynamic and regulated cellular state plays beneficial roles in physiology, such as during embryonic development and wound healing, but it can also result in antagonistic effects in age-related pathologies, degenerative disorders, ageing and cancer. In an effort to better identify this complex state, and given that a universal marker has yet to be identified, a general set of hallmarks describing senescence has been established. However, as the senescent programme becomes more defined, further complexities, including phenotype heterogeneity, have emerged. This significantly complicates the recognition and evaluation of cellular senescence, especially within complex tissues and living organisms. To address these challenges, substantial efforts are currently being made towards the discovery of novel and more specific biomarkers, optimized combinatorial strategies and the development of emerging detection techniques. Here, we compile such advances and present a multifactorial guide to identify and assess cellular senescence in cell cultures, tissues and living organisms. The reliable assessment and identification of senescence is not only crucial for better understanding its underlying biology, but also imperative for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting senescence in the clinic.