Quantitative Design of Bright Fluorophores and AIEgens by the Accurate Prediction of Twisted Intramolecular Charge Transfer (TICT)

Hierarchical Self-Assembly and Aggregation-Induced Emission Enhancement in Tetrabenzofluorene-Based Red Emitting Molecules

The newly synthesized chiral active [5]helicene-like tetrabenzofluorene (TBF) based highly red-emitting molecules exhibit flower-like self-assembly. These molecules display photophysical and structural properties such as intramolecular charge transfer, dual state emission, large fluorescence quantum yield, and solvatochromism. In TBFID, the indandione functional group attached on both sides as the terminal group offers an A-D-A push-pull effect and acts as a strong acceptor to cause more redshift in solution as well as in solid state as compared to TBFPA (TBF with benzaldehyde functional group in terminal position). The self-assembly studies of TBFID demonstrate the aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) attributed to the restriction of intramolecular rotation at the aggregated state. Furthermore, TBFID shows high quantum yield and intense red emission, making the molecule fit for organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) and bioimaging applications.

H-bond engineering as a general strategy for inhibiting twisted intramolecular charge transfer in donor-acceptor fluorescent probes: Reshaping the pre-twisting method

Twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) is a fluorescence quenching mechanism that occurs in donor-acceptor (D‒A) molecules. Chemical engineering research into TICT regulation over the past 50 years has primarily focused on manipulating steric factors by introducing alkyl groups at the D-A junction (pre-twisting). Herein, we report a significant advance in TICT-based probes through the introducing of H-bond as an efficient strategy for suppressing TICT. Accordingly, ortho-Cl installation in the N-phenylpyrazine-2-carboxamide (PPC) platform can achieve complete reversal from the quenching mode to the light-up mode. This specific H-bonding (N-H⋯Cl) effectively blocks N-C(Ar) bond rotation, leading to fluorescence-ON. This suggested that TICT inhibition may be involved. Therefore, in a sharp contrast to the general nature of the pre-twisting method in rotor molecules, which involves incorporating steric hindrance at either the donor or acceptor moiety to enhance intramolecular rotation (promotion TICT), the ortho-H bonding strategy completely freezes D‒A bond twisting (suppression TICT), resulting in improved fluorescent intensity. Furthermore, the fluorophores were evaluated for Hg2+ detection and in vivo bio-imaging. Notably, Hg-complexation induced another fluorescence inversion (OFF-ON) by imposing spatial constraints on twisting freedom in 3,4-Cl-PPC. Taken together, this work provides a valid and generalizable tactic for the development of high-performance sensing fluorophores through inhibition of TICT.

Ultrabright NIR-II Nanoprobe for Image-Guided Accurate Resection of Tiny Metastatic Lesions

Fluorescence imaging is a vital way to delineate the tumor boundaries. Here, we achieve a NIR-II aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) with a fluorescence quantum yield (QY) of 12.6% in water through straightforward alkyl side chain modification. After loading of NIR-II AIEgen into polystyrene (PS) nanospheres, the thermal deactivation pathway is extremely limited, thereby concentrating absorption excitation on fluorescence emission. The fluorescence intensity is further enhanced by 5.4 times, the QY increases to 21.1%, and the NIR-II imaging signal is accordingly enhanced by 8.7 times, surpassing conventional DSPE-PEG carriers. The NIR-II@PS nanoprobe showcases superior resolution and tissue penetration depth compared to indocyanine green (ICG) and short-range near-infrared AIEgens. In vivo investigations underscore its tumor-to-normal tissue ratio (3.9) at 24 h post intravenous injection, enabling complete resection of ≤1 mm metastases under NIR-II bioimaging guidance. Additionally, the PS carrier-nanoparticles exhibit low toxicity in vivo, laying a promising foundation for the future design of medical nanomaterials.

Bimolecular versus Trimolecular Reaction Pathways for H2O2 with Hypochlorous Species and Implications for Wastewater Reclamation

The benchmark advanced oxidation technology (AOT) that uses UV/H2O2 integrated with hypochlorous species exhibits great potential in removing micropollutants and enhancing wastewater treatability for reclamation purposes. Although efforts have been made to study the reactions of H2O2 with hypochlorous species, there exist great discrepancies in the order of reaction kinetics, the rate constants, and the molecule-level mechanisms. This results in an excessive use of hypochlorous reagents and system underperformance during treatment processes. Herein, the titled reaction was investigated systematically through complementary experimental and theoretical approaches. Stopped-flow spectroscopic measurements revealed a combination of bi- and trimolecular reaction kinetics. The bimolecular pathway dominates at low H2O2 concentrations, while the trimolecular pathway dominates at high H2O2 concentrations. Both reactions were simulated using direct dynamics trajectories, and the pathways identified in the trajectories were further validated by high-level quantum chemistry calculations. The theoretical results not only supported the spectroscopic data but also elucidated the molecule-level mechanisms and helped to address the origin of the discrepancies. In addition, the impact of the environmental matrix was evaluated by using two waters with discrete characteristics, namely municipal wastewater and ammonium-rich wastewater. Municipal wastewater had a negligible matrix effect on the reaction kinetics of H2O2 and the hypochlorous species, making it a highly suitable candidate for this integration technique. The obtained in-depth reaction mechanistic insights will enable the development of a viable and economical technology for safe water reuse.

Approach toward Low Energy Loss in Symmetrical Nonfullerene Acceptor Molecules Inspired by Insertion of Different π-Spacers for Developing Efficient Organic Solar Cells

In this quantum approach, by adding bridge/π-spacer fragments between the donor and acceptor parts of a newly constructed DF-PCIC (A-D-A type) molecule, it is the aim to improve the photovoltaic characteristics of organic solar cells (OSCs). After π-spacer insertion into the reference molecule (DF-R), six new molecules (DF-M1 to DF-M6) were designed. The optoelectronic attributes of newly inspected molecules were theoretically calculated using MPW1PW91/6-31G(d,p) level of theory. All newly proposed molecules possessed a lower band gap (Eg), a higher value of absorption, lower reorganization energy, greater dipole moment, and lower energies of excitations than the DF-R molecule. The frontier molecular orbital study proclaimed that the DF-M1 molecule has the lowest band gap of 1.62 eV in comparison to the 2.41 eV value of DF-R. Absorption properties represented that DF-M1 and DF-M2 molecules show the highest absorption values of up to 1006 and 1004 nm, respectively, in the near-infrared region. Regarding the reorganization energy, DF-M2 has the lowest value of λe (0.0683896 eV) and the lowest value of λh (0.1566471 eV). DF-M2 and DF-M5 manifested greater dipole moments with the values of 5.514665 and 7.143434 D, respectively. The open circuit voltage (VOC) of all the acceptors was calculated with J61, a donor complex. DF-M4 and DF-M6 molecules showed higher values of VOC and fill factor than the DF-R molecule. Based on the given results, it was supposed that all the newly presented molecules might prove themselves to be better than the reference and thus might be of great interest to experimentalists. Thus, they are suggested to be used to develop proficient OSC devices with improved photovoltaic prospects in the near future.

Fluorescent Probes Based on AIEgen-Mediated Polyelectrolyte Assemblies for Manipulating Intramolecular Motion and Magnetic Relaxivity

Uniting photothermal therapy (PTT) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) holds great potential in nanotheranostics. However, the extensively utilized hydrophobicity-driven assembling strategy not only restricts the intramolecular motion-induced PTT, but also blocks the interactions between MR agents and water. Herein, we report an aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen)-mediated polyelectrolyte nanoassemblies (APN) strategy, which bestows a unique "soft" inner microenvironment with good water permeability. Femtosecond transient spectra verify that APN well activates intramolecular motion from the twisted intramolecular charge transfer process. This de novo APN strategy uniting synergistically three factors (rotational motion, local motion, and hydration number) brings out high MR relaxivity. For the first time, APN strategy has successfully modulated both intramolecular motion and magnetic relaxivity, achieving fluorescence lifetime imaging of tumor spheroids and spatio-temporal MRI-guided high-efficient PTT.

Green-solvent Processable Dopant-free Hole Transporting Materials for Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells

The commercialization of perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) urgently requires the development of green-solvent processable dopant-free hole transporting materials (HTMs). However, strong intermolecular interactions that ensure high hole mobility always compromise the solubility and film-forming ability in green solvents. Herein, we show a simple but effective design strategy to solve this trade-off, that is, constructing star-shaped D-A-D structure. The resulting HTMs (BTP1-2) can be processed by green solvent of 2-methylanisole (2MA), a kind of food additive, and show high hole mobility and multiple defect passivation effects. An impressive efficiency of 24.34 % has been achieved for 2MA-processed BTP1 based inverted PVSCs, the highest value for green-solvent processable HTMs so far. Moreover, it is manifested that the charge separation of D-A type HTMs at the photoinduced excited state can help to passivate the defects of perovskites, indicating a new HTM design insight.

An Activatable NIR-II Fluorescent Reporter for In Vivo Imaging of Amyloid-β Plaques

Fluorescence imaging in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window holds great promise for in vivo visualization of amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology, which can facilitate characterization and deep understanding of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, it has been rarely exploited. Herein, we report the development of NIR-II fluorescent reporters with a donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) architecture for specific detection of Aβ plaques in AD-model mice. Among all the designed probes, DMP2 exhibits the highest affinity to Aβ fibrils and can specifically activate its NIR-II fluorescence after binding to Aβ fibrils via suppressed twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) effect. With suitable lipophilicity for ideal blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetrability and deep-tissue penetration of NIR-II fluorescence, DMP2 possesses specific detection of Aβ plaques in in vivo AD-model mice. Thus, this study presents a potential agent for non-invasive imaging of Aβ plaques and deep deciphering of AD progression.

Recent Advances in the Enzyme-Activatable Organic Fluorescent Probes for Tumor Imaging and Therapy

The exploration of advanced probes for cancer diagnosis and treatment is of high importance in fundamental research and clinical practice. In comparison with the traditional "always-on" probes, the emerging activatable probes enjoy advantages in promoted accuracy for tumor theranostics by specifically releasing or activating fluorophores at the targeting sites. The main designing principle for these probes is to incorporate responsive groups that can specifically react with the biomarkers (e. g., enzymes) involved in tumorigenesis and progression, realizing the controlled activation in tumors. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in the molecular design and biomedical application of enzyme-responsive organic fluorescent probes. Particularly, the fluorophores can be endowed with ability of generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) to afford the photosensitizers, highlighting the potential of these probes in simultaneous tumor imaging and therapy with rational design. We hope that this review could inspire more research interests in the development of tumor-targeting theranostic probes for advanced biological studies.

Complete Inhibition of the Rotation in a Barrierless TICT Probe for Fluorescence-On Qualitative Analysis

Inhibition of twisting intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) is one of the most attractive methods for fluorescence-on analysis, whereas it remains enigmatic whether the fluorescence in a TICT-based probe could be thoroughly lightened. Here, for maximizing the fluorescence-on signal of the TICT-based probe, we develop a model by employing chemical reaction to directly cleave the linkage between the rotational electron donor and acceptor with a predisposed fluorescent signal close to zero. To validate this assumption, a nonfluorescent probe with barrierless rotation is successfully achieved by grafting acryloyl with -C═C- recognition sites onto coumarin, and 7-hydroxycoumarin with bright blue fluorescence could be released within 3 s upon probing KMnO₄ with an amount as low as 0.95 nM and 6.6 pg. We believe that the present strategy could not only deepen the insights of photochemistry but also facilitate the development of a theranostic drug delivery system, energy conversion, pollution control, and health risk reduction.

Unravelling the Turn-On Fluorescence Mechanism of a Fluorescein-Based Probe in GABAA Receptors

GABAA (γ-aminobutyric acid type A) receptors are ligand-gated ion channels mediating fast inhibitory transmission in the mammalian brain. Here we report the molecular and electronic mechanism governing the turn-on emission of a fluorescein-based imaging probe able to target the human GABAA receptor. Multiscale calculations evidence a drastic conformational change of the probe from folded in solution to extended upon binding to the receptor. Intramolecular ππ-stacking interactions present in the folded probe are responsible for quenching fluorescence in solution. In contrast, unfolding within the GABAA receptor changes the nature of the bright excited state triggering emission. Remarkably, this turn-on effect only manifests for the dianionic prototropic form of the imaging probe, which is found to be the strongest binder to the GABAA receptor. This study is expected to assist the design of new photoactivatable screening tools for allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor.

Unravelling the Turn‐On Fluorescence Mechanism of a Fluorescein‐Based Probe in GABA A Receptors

GABA_A (γ‐aminobutyric acid type A) receptors are ligand‐gated ion channels mediating fast inhibitory transmission in the mammalian brain. Here we report the molecular and electronic mechanism governing the turn‐on emission of a fluorescein‐based imaging probe able to target the human GABA_A receptor. Multiscale calculations evidence a drastic conformational change of the probe from folded in solution to extended upon binding to the receptor. Intramolecular ππ‐stacking interactions present in the folded probe are responsible for quenching fluorescence in solution. In contrast, unfolding within the GABA_A receptor changes the nature of the bright excited state triggering emission. Remarkably, this turn‐on effect only manifests for the dianionic prototropic form of the imaging probe, which is found to be the strongest binder to the GABA_A receptor. This study is expected to assist the design of new photoactivatable screening tools for allosteric modulators of the GABA_A receptor.

Improvement of the photostability of cycloalkylamine-7-sulfonyl-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole-based fluorescent dyes by replacing the dimethylamino substituent with cyclic amino rings

Replacing the dimethylamino substituent of a fluorescent probe with 3- and 4-membered cyclic amine rings led to significantly enhanced photostability.

Bright and Efficient Sensitized Near-Infrared Photoluminescence from an Organic Neodymium-Containing Composite Material System

Intense organic neodymium (Nd³⁺) emission is obtained with near-infrared (NIR) emission equivalent in intensity to that of an organic semiconductor emitting material. The advantage of Nd³⁺ emission is its narrow line width and NIR emission, which is enhanced by ∼3000 times at low excitation power through an efficient sensitization effect from a composite organic sensitizer. This performance is optimized at high concentrations of Nd³⁺ ions, and the organic perfluorinated system provides the ion excitations with a quantum efficiency of ∼40%. The material system is applicable to thin films that are compatible with integrated optics applications.

Theoretical Investigations on the Excited-State Dynamics of an Al3+ Fluorescence Sensor

Twisted internal charge transfer (TICT) states are of fundamental importance during the photo-physical processes of dyes and sensors. In this contribution, excited-state dynamics of an Al³⁺ fluorescence sensor 1-{[(2-hydroxyphenyl)-imino]methyl}naphthalen-2-ol based on the turn-on signal is clarified. Two different dark TICT states are observed by exploring the excited-state potential energy surface. With the twist of the C2-N bond, the two dark states can be reached facilely, which induce the experimentally observed weak fluorescence of the sensor. The sensing mechanism is then uncovered by investigating the electronic coupling between the sensor and analyte. Al³⁺ is proved to form strong coordination bonds with the sensor, which restricts the motion of the C2-N bond. Consequently, the TICT states are eliminated, which generate the turn-on signal. This sensing mechanism is trustworthy and intrinsically different from the previously proposed one, which would shed some light on the design of turn-on sensors.

Multiple Factors Regulate the Spirocyclization Equilibrium of Si-Rhodamines

Si-rhodamine has been extensively used in super-resolution fluorescence imaging in recent years. Its equilibrium between ring-closed nonfluorescent spirolactones and ring-opened fluorescent zwitterions endows Si-rhodamine with excellent fluorogenicity, membrane permeability, and photostability. In this paper, the equilibrium of Si-rhodamine between lactones and zwitterions was revealed to be greatly affected by various environmental factors, including molecular aggregation, solvent polarity, pH, metal ions, irradiation, and temperature. These environmental sensitivities make Si-rhodamine useful as a hydrochromic material, a fluorescent sensor array for metal ions or solvents, and a photoactivatable switch. Importantly, these results indicate that using Si-rhodamine as a fluorogenic probe or a blinking fluorophore in single-molecule localization super-resolution microscopy requires caution on possible false signals caused by its environmental sensitivity.

A Systematic Study of Coumarin-Tetrazine Light-Up Probes for Bioorthogonal Fluorescence Imaging

Fluorescent probes that light-up upon reaction with complementary bioorthogonal reagents are superior tools for no-wash fluorogenic bioimaging applications. In this work, a thorough study is presented on a set of seventeen structurally diverse coumarin-tetrazine probes that produce fluorescent dyes with exceptional turn-on ratios when reacted with trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and bicyclononyne (BCN) dienophiles. In general, formation of the fully aromatic pyridazine-containing dyes resulting from the reaction with BCN was found superior in terms of fluorogenicity. However, evaluation of the probes in cellular imaging experiments revealed that other factors, such as reaction kinetics and good cell permeability, prevail over the fluorescence turn-on properties. The best compound identified in this study showed excellent performance in live cell-labeling experiments and enabled no-wash fluorogenic imaging on a timescale of seconds.