Trifluoromethyl Coordination and CF Bond Activation at Calcium

Nucleophilic Fluoride Anion Delivery from Triazacyclononane-Supported Molecular Ca-F Complexes

The major source of fluoride, namely calcium difluoride (CaF2), is derived from the mineral fluorspar. Recent advances in the activation of CaF2 via mechanochemical methods have inspired investigation of the fundamental properties of Ca-F bonds in molecular complexes. However, the paucity of well-defined molecular Ca-F-containing complexes undermines systematic understanding of the factors governing nucleophilic fluoride delivery. Here we report the use of a multidentate bis(phenoxide) ligand based on a 1,4,7-triazacyclononane (TACN) scaffold for the formation of well-defined Ca-F complexes and demonstrate their capabilities in fluoride delivery. Key to this synthesis is a desymmetrization step carried out on the TACN ligand within the Ca coordination sphere. A series of stable anionic dinuclear calcium fluoride complexes has then been accessed and characterized by NMR spectroscopy (critically by 19F NMR) and X-ray crystallography. Nucleophilic fluoride delivery can be used to generate C-F, Si-F and S-F bonds, with a notable advance over amide-derived ligand scaffolds being the reduced extent of side reactions derived from competing attack on the electrophile by the less nucleophilic O-donor anionic ligand set.

Enabling nucleophilic reactivity in molecular calcium fluoride complexes

Calcium fluoride is the ultimate source of all fluorochemicals. Current synthetic approaches rely on the use of HF, generated from naturally occurring fluorspar and sulfuric acid. Methods for constructing E-F bonds directly from CaF2 have long been frustrated by its high lattice energy, low solubility and impaired fluoride ion nucleophilicity. Little fundamental understanding of the reactivity of Ca-F moieties is available to guide methodology development; well-defined molecular species containing Ca-F bonds are extremely rare, and existing examples are strongly aggregated and evidence no nucleophilic fluoride delivery. Here, by contrast, we show that by targeting anionic systems of the type [Ln(X)2CaF]-, monomeric calcium fluoride complexes containing single Ca-F bonds can be synthesized, including via routes involving fluoride abstraction from existing C-F bonds. Comparative structural and spectroscopic studies of mono- and dinuclear systems allow us to define structure-activity relationships for E-F bond formation from molecular calcium fluorides.

Fluorochemicals from fluorspar via a phosphate-enabled mechanochemical process that bypasses HF

All fluorochemicals-including elemental fluorine and nucleophilic, electrophilic, and radical fluorinating reagents-are prepared from hydrogen fluoride (HF). This highly toxic and corrosive gas is produced by the reaction of acid-grade fluorspar (>97% CaF₂) with sulfuric acid under harsh conditions. The use of fluorspar to produce fluorochemicals via a process that bypasses HF is highly desirable but remains an unsolved problem because of the prohibitive insolubility of CaF₂. Inspired by calcium phosphate biomineralization, we herein disclose a protocol of treating acid-grade fluorspar with dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K₂HPO₄) under mechanochemical conditions. The process affords a solid composed of crystalline K₃(HPO₄)F and K_2-xCa_y(PO₃F)_a(PO₄)_b, which is found suitable for forging sulfur-fluorine and carbon-fluorine bonds.

Novel Volatile Heteroleptic Barium Complexes Using Tetradentate Ligand and β-Diketonato Ligand

Novel barium heteroleptic complexes were synthesized through the substitution of the bis(trimethylsilyl)amide of Ba(btsa)₂·2DME with aminoalkoxide and β-diketonate ligands. Compounds [Ba(ddemap)(tmhd)]₂ (1) and [Ba(ddemmp)(tmhd)]₂ (2) were obtained and analyzed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, thermogravimetric analysis, and elemental analysis (ddemapH = 1-(dimethylamino)-5-((2-(dimethylamino)ethyl) (methyl)amino)pentan-3-ol and ddemmpH = 1-(dimethylamino)-5-((2-(dimethylamino)ethyl) (methyl)amino)-3-methylpentan-3-ol). In single-crystal X-ray crystallography, complex 1 exhibited a dimeric structure with μ₂-O bonds of the ddemap ligand. All complexes exhibited high volatility and could be sublimed under reduced pressure (0.5 Torr) at 160 °C, indicating that these complexes are promising candidates as atomic layer deposition or chemical vapor deposition precursors for the growth of barium-containing thin films.

Electrosynthetic C-F bond cleavage

Fluorinated organic compounds are common among pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and materials. The significant strength of the C-F bond results in chemical inertness that, depending on the context, is beneficial, problematic or simply a formidable synthetic challenge. Electrosynthesis is a rapidly expanding methodology that can enable new reactivity and selectivity for cleavage and formation of chemical bonds. Here, a comprehensive overview of synthetically relevant electrochemically driven protocols for C-F bond activation and functionalization is presented, including photoelectrochemical strategies.

Bonding in Barium Boryloxides, Siloxides, Phenoxides and Silazides: A Comparison with the Lighter Alkaline Earths

Barium complexes ligated by bulky boryloxides [OBR₂ ]^- (where R=CH(SiMe₃ )₂ , 2,4,6-ⁱ Pr₃ -C₆ H₂ or 2,4,6-(CF₃ )₃ -C₆ H₂ ), siloxide [OSi(SiMe₃ )₃ ]^- , and/or phenoxide [O-2,6-Ph₂ -C₆ H₃ ]^- , have been prepared. A diversity of coordination patterns is observed in the solid state for both homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes, with coordination numbers ranging between 2 and 4. The identity of the bridging ligand in heteroleptic dimers [Ba(μ₂ -X₁ )(X₂ )]₂ depends largely on the given pair of ligands X₁ and X₂ . Experimentally, the propensity to fill the bridging position increases according to [OB{CH(SiMe₃ )₂ }₂ )]^- <[N(SiMe₃ )₂ ]^- <[OSi(SiMe₃ )₃ ]^- <[O(2,6-Ph₂ -C₆ H₃ )]^- <[OB(2,4,6-ⁱ Pr₃ -C₆ H₂ )₂ ]^- . This trend is the overall expression of 3 properties: steric constraints, electronic density and σ- and π-donating capability of the negatively charged atom, and ability to generate Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ F, Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ C(π) or Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ H-C secondary interactions. The comparison of the structural motifs in the complexes [Ae{μ₂ -N(SiMe₃ )₂ }(OB{CH(SiMe₃ )₂ }₂ )]₂ (Ae = Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba) suggest that these observations may be extended to all alkaline earths. DFT calculations highlight the largely prevailing ionic character of ligand-Ae bonding in all compounds. The ionic character of the Ae-ligand bond encourages bridging coordination, whereas the number of bridging ligands is controlled by steric factors. DFT computations also indicate that in [Ba(μ₂ -X₁ )(X₂ )]₂ heteroleptic dimers, ligand predilection for bridging vs. terminal positions is dictated by the ability to establish secondary interactions between the metals and the ligands.

FLP behaviour of cationic titanium complexes with tridentate Cp,O,N-ligands: highly efficient syntheses and activation reactions of C–X bonds (X = Cl, F)

Titanium FLPs! Solvent- and catalyst-free Aza-Michael reaction provides β-amino ketones which were employed as ligand precursors for the convenient synthesis of novel cationic titanium complexes with tridentate Cp,O,N-ligand frameworks, which activate C–X bonds in a FLP-like manner.

Metal free oxidation of vinamidine derivatives: a simple synthesis of α-keto-β-diimine ligands

Oxidation of vinamidinium salts with meta-chloroperbenzoic acid is the key synthetic step towards new persistent 1,3-di(amino)oxyallyl radical cations. When applied to parent vinamidines, this protocol allows for a simple straightforward synthesis of α-keto-β-diimine ligands, for which no convenient synthesis was previously available.

Oxidation of vinamidinium salts with meta-chloroperbenzoic acid not only provides access to new persistent 1,3-di(amino)oxyallyl radical cations, but also to α-keto-β-diimine ligands, for which no convenient synthesis was previously available.

Monometallic and Bimetallic Platinum Complexes with Fluorinated β-Diketiminate Ligands

Presented here are complexes of two different fluorinated β-diketiminate (NacNac) ligands with cyclometalated platinum. Reaction of the cyclometalated platinum dimers [Pt(C^N)(μ-X)]₂ [C^N = 2-phenylpyridine (ppy), 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)pyridine (F₂ppy); X = Cl, Br] with lithium salts of backbone-fluorinated β-diketiminate ligands produces two structure types, depending on the temperature of the reaction. At milder temperatures (<80 °C), the major product is an unusual halide-bridged diplatinum complex, demonstrating a unique NacNac binding mode bridging the two platinum centers. At higher temperatures (>100 °C), the major species is a monoplatinum complex of the type Pt(C^N)(NacNac). The complexes display reduction waves in their cyclic voltammograms at mild potentials, as well as intense visible absorption bands (λ > 500 nm), that depend minimally on the identity of the C^N ligand or, in the case of the bimetallic complexes, the identity of the bridging halide. In addition, the monoplatinum complexes exhibit structured luminescence in the red and near-infrared regions deriving a NacNac-centered triplet state. All of these observations suggest that the NacNac π system contributes substantially to the frontier orbitals and motivates continued exploration of fluorinated β-diketiminate ligands in the design of complexes with desirable ligand-based redox and optical properties.

Calcium mediated C–F bond substitution in fluoroarenes towards C–chalcogen bond formation

An efficient C–F bond substitution in electron-deficient fluoroarenes by chalcogens has been achieved using calcium chloride.

Calcium, Strontium and Barium Homogeneous Catalysts for Fine Chemicals Synthesis

The large alkaline earths (Ae), calcium, strontium and barium, have in the past 15 years yielded a brand new generation of heteroleptic molecular catalysts for the production of fine chemicals. However, the integrity of these complexes is often plagued by ligand redistribution equilibria in solution. This personal account retraces the paths followed in our research group towards the design of stable heteroleptic alkalino-earth complexes, including the use of intramolecular noncovalent Ae···H-Si and Ae···F-C interactions. Their implementation as homogenous precatalysts for reactions such as the intramolecular and intermolecular hydroamination and hydrophosphination of activated alkenes, the hydrophosphonylation of ketones, and the dehydrogenative coupling of amines and hydrosilanes that enable the efficient and controlled formations of CP, CN, or SiN σ-bonds, is presented in a synthetic perspective that highlights their overall outstanding catalytic performance.

On the non-innocence of “Nacnacs”: ligand-based reactivity in β-diketiminate supported coordination compounds

While β-diketiminate (BDI or ‘nacnac’) ligands have been widely adopted to stabilize a wide range of metal ions in multiple oxidation states and coordination numbers, in several occurrences these ligands do not behave as spectators and participate in reactivity.

Intramolecular C-F and C-H bond cleavage promoted by butadienyl heavy Grignard reagents

Organomagnesium compounds (Grignard reagents) are among the most useful organometallic reagents and have greatly accelerated the advancement of synthetic chemistry and related sciences. Nevertheless, heavy Grignard reagents based on the metals calcium, strontium or barium are not widely used, mainly due to their rather inert heavy alkaline-earth metals and extremely high reactivity of their corresponding Grignard-type reagents. Here we report the generation and reaction chemistry of butadienyl heavy Grignard reagents whose extremely high reactivity is successfully tamed. Facile synthesis of perfluoro-π-extended pentalene and naphthalene derivatives is realized by the in situ generated heavy Grignard reagents via intramolecular C-F/C-H bond cleavage. These obtained perfluorodibenzopentalene and perfluorodinaphthopentalene derivatives show low-lying LUMO levels, with one being the lowest value so far among all pentalene derivatives. Our results set an exciting example for the meaningful synthetic application of heavy Grignard reagents.

Chiral calcium iodide for asymmetric Mannich-type reactions of malonates with imines providing β-aminocarbonyl compounds

Out of the pybox: We have developed a novel chiral calcium iodide catalyst from CaI2 and a pybox that is stable under moisture and oxygen. This catalyst was applied to catalytic asymmetric Mannich-type reactions of malonates with both N-Boc-protected aromatic and aliphatic imines, and resulted in moderate to high yields with high enantioselectivities. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of highly enantioselective metal-catalyzed asymmetric Mannich-type reactions of malonates with N-Boc-protected aliphatic imines. The Mannich adduct was successfully converted into the α-hydroxy β-amino acid derivative. We have also shown the unique structure of the chiral Ca complexes with malonates.

Discrete, solvent-free alkaline-earth metal cations: metal···fluorine interactions and ROP catalytic activity

Efficient protocols for the syntheses of well-defined, solvent-free cations of the large alkaline-earth (Ae) metals (Ca, Sr, Ba) and their smaller Zn and Mg analogues have been designed. The reaction of 2,4-di-tert-butyl-6-(morpholinomethyl)phenol ({LO(1)}H), 2-{[bis(2-methoxyethyl)amino]methyl}-4,6-di-tert-butylphenol ({LO(2)}H), 2-[(1,4,7,10-tetraoxa-13-azacyclopentadecan-13-yl)methyl]-4,6-di-tert-butylphenol ({LO(3)}H), and 2-[(1,4,7,10-tetraoxa-13-azacyclo-pentadecan-13-yl)methyl]-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropan-2-ol ({RO(3)}H) with [H(OEt(2))(2)](+)[H(2)N{B(C(6)F(5))(3)}(2)](-) readily afforded the doubly acidic pro-ligands [{LO(1)}HH](+)[X](-) (1), [{LO(2)}HH](+)[X](-) (2), [{LO(3)}HH](+)[X](-) (3), and [{RO(3)}HH](+)[X](-) (4) ([X](-) = [H(2)N{B(C(6)F(5))(3)}(2)](-)). The addition of 2 to Ca[N(SiMe(3))(2)](2)(THF)(2) and Sr[N(SiMe(3))(2)](2)(THF)(2) yielded [{LO(2)}Ca(THF)(0.5)](+)[X](-) (5) and [{LO(2)}Sr(THF)](+)[X](-) (6), respectively. Alternatively, 5 could also be prepared upon treatment of {LO(2)}CaN(SiMe(3))(2) (7) with [H(OEt(2))(2)](+)[X](-). Complexes [{LO(3)}M](+)[X](-) (M = Zn, 8; Mg, 9; Ca, 10; Sr, 11; Ba, 12) and [{RO(3)}M](+)[X](-) (M = Zn, 13; Mg, 14; Ca, 15; Sr, 16; Ba, 17) were synthesized in high yields (70-90%) by reaction of 3 or 4 with the neutral precursors M[N(SiMe(3))(2)](2)(THF)(x) (M = Zn, Mg, x = 0; M = Ca, Sr, Ba, x = 2). All compounds were fully characterized by spectroscopic methods, and the solid-sate structures of compounds 1, 3, 7, 8, 13, 14, {15}(4)·3CD(2)Cl(2), {16}(4)·3CD(2)Cl(2), and {{17}(4)·EtOH}·3CD(2)Cl(2) were determined by X-ray diffraction crystallography. Whereas the complexes are monomeric in the case of Zn and Mg, they form bimetallic cations in the case of Ca, Sr and Ba; there is no contact between the metal and the weakly coordinating anion. In all metal complexes, the multidentate ligand is κ(6)-coordinated to the metal. Strong intramolecular M···F secondary interactions between the metal and F atoms from the ancillary ligands are observed in the structures of {15}(4)·3CD(2)Cl(2), {16}(4)·3CD(2)Cl(2), and {{17}(4)·EtOH}·3CD(2)Cl(2). VT (19)F{(1)H} NMR provided no direct evidence that these interactions are maintained in solution; nevertheless, significant Ae···F energies of stabilization of 25-26 (Ca, Ba) and 40 kcal·mol(-1) (Sr) were calculated by NBO analysis on DFT-optimized structures. The identity and integrity of the cationic complexes are preserved in solution in the presence of an excess of alcohol (BnOH, (i)PrOH) or L-lactide (L-LA). Efficient binary catalytic systems for the immortal ring-opening polymerization of L-LA (up to 3,000 equiv) are produced upon addition of an excess (5-50 equiv) of external protic nucleophilic agents (BnOH, (i)PrOH) to 8-12 or 13-17. PLLAs with M(n) up to 35,000 g·mol(-1) were produced in a very controlled fashion (M(w)/M(n) ≈ 1.10-1.20) and without epimerization. In each series of catalysts, the following order of catalytic activity was established: Mg ≪ Zn < Ca < Sr ≈ Ba; also, Ae complexes supported by the aryloxide ligand are more active than their parents supported by the fluorinated alkoxide ancillary, possibly owing to the presence of Ae···F interactions in the latter case. The rate law -d[L-LA]/dt = k(p)·[L-LA](1.0)·[16](1.0)·[BnOH](1.0) was established by NMR kinetic investigations, with the corresponding activation parameters ΔH(++) = 14.8(5) kcal·mol(-1) and ΔS(++) = -7.6(2.0) cal·K(-1)·mol(-1). DFT calculations indicated that the observed order of catalytic activity matches an increase of the L-LA coordination energy onto the cationic metal centers with parallel decrease of the positive metal charge.

Chemistry of soluble β-diketiminatoalkaline-earth metal complexes with M-X bonds (M=Mg, Ca, Sr; X=OH, Halides, H)

Victor Grignard's Nobel Prize-winning preparation of organomagnesium halides (Grignard reagents) marked the formal beginning of organometallic chemistry with alkaline earth metals. Further development of this invaluable synthetic route, RX+Mg→RMgX, with the heavier alkaline earth metals (Ca and Sr) was hampered by limitations in synthetic methodologies. Moreover, the lack of suitable ligands for stabilizing the reactive target molecules, particularly with the more electropositive Ca and Sr, was another obstacle. The absence in the literature, until just recently, of fundamental alkaline earth metal complexes with M-H, M-F, and M-OH (where M is the Group 2 metal Mg, Ca, or Sr) bonds amenable for organometallic reactions is remarkable. The progress in isolating various unstable compounds of p-block elements with β-diketiminate ligands was recently applied to Group 2 chemistry. The monoanionic β-diketiminate ligands are versatile tools for addressing synthetic challenges, as amply demonstrated with alkaline earth complexes: the synthesis and structural characterization of soluble β-diketiminatocalcium hydroxide, β-diketiminatostrontium hydroxide, and β-diketiminatocalcium fluoride are just a few examples of our contribution to this area of research. To advance the chemistry beyond synthesis, we have investigated the reactivity and potential for applications of these species, for example, through the demonstration of dip coating surfaces with CaCO(3) and CaF(2) with solutions of the calcium hydroxide and calcium fluoride complexes, respectively. In this Account, we summarize some recent developments in alkaline earth metal complex chemistry, particularly of Mg, Ca, and Sr, through the utilization of β-diketiminate ligands. We focus on results generated in our laboratory but give due mention to work from other groups as well. We also highlight the closely related chemistry of the Group 12 element Zn, as well as the important chemistry developed by other groups using the complexes we have reported. Although Mg and Ca are more abundant in living organisms, no other metal has as many biological functions as Zn. Thus Zn, the nontoxic alternative to the heavier Group 12 elements Cd and Hg, occupies a unique position ripe for further exploration.

Heterofunctionalization catalysis with organometallic complexes of calcium, strontium and barium

Despite the routine employment of Grignard reagents and Hauser bases as stoichiometric carbanion reagents in organic and inorganic synthesis, a defined reaction chemistry encompassing the heavier elements of Group II (M = Ca, Sr and Ba) has, until recently, remained unreported. This article provides details of the recent progress in heavier Group II catalysed small molecule transformations mediated by well-defined heteroleptic and homoleptic complexes of the form LMX or MX 2 ; where L is a mono-anionic ligand and X is a reactive σ-bonded substituent. The intra- and intermolecular heterofunctionalization (hydroamination, hydrophosphination, hydrosilylation and hydrogenation) of alkenes, alkynes, dienes, carbodiimides, isocyanates and ketones is discussed.