1
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Nishimura T, Hatatani Y, Ando M, Sasaki Y, Akiyoshi K. Single-component nanodiscs via the thermal folding of amphiphilic graft copolymers with the adjusted flexibility of the main chain. Chem Sci 2022; 13:5243-5251. [PMID: 35655565 PMCID: PMC9093194 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc01674e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanodiscs have attracted considerable attention as structural scaffolds for membrane-protein research and as biomaterials in e.g. drug-delivery systems. However, conventional disc-fabrication methods are usually laborious, and disc fabrication via the self-assembly of amphiphiles is difficult. Herein, we report the formation of polymer nanodiscs based on the self-assembly of amphiphilic graft copolymers by adjusting the persistence length of the main chain. Amphiphilic graft copolymers with a series of different main-chain persistence lengths were prepared and these formed, depending on the persistence length, either rods, discs, or vesicles. Notably, polymer nanodiscs were formed upon heating a chilled polymer solution without the need for any additives, and the thus obtained nanodiscs were used to solubilize a membrane protein during cell-free protein synthesis. Given the simplicity of this disc-fabrication method and the ability of these discs to solubilize membrane proteins, this study considerably expands the fundamental and practical scope of graft-copolymer nanodiscs and demonstrates their utility as tools for studying the structure and function of membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Nishimura
- Department of Chemistry and Materials, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology, Shinshu University 3-15-1, Tokida Ueda Nagano 386-8567 Japan
| | - Yusuke Hatatani
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Mitsuru Ando
- Department of Regeneration Science and Engineering, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku Kyoto 606-8507 Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sasaki
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Kazunari Akiyoshi
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
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2
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Marty MT. Nanodiscs and Mass Spectrometry: Making Membranes Fly. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2020; 458:116436. [PMID: 33100891 PMCID: PMC7584149 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijms.2020.116436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Cells are surrounded by a protective lipid bilayer membrane, and membrane proteins in the bilayer control the flow of chemicals, information, and energy across this barrier. Many therapeutics target membrane proteins, and some directly target the lipid membrane itself. However, interactions within biological membranes are challenging to study due to their heterogeneity and insolubility. Mass spectrometry (MS) has become a powerful technique for studying membrane proteins, especially how membrane proteins interact with their surrounding lipid environment. Although detergent micelles are the most common membrane mimetic, nanodiscs are emerging as a promising platform for MS. Nanodiscs, nanoscale lipid bilayers encircled by two scaffold proteins, provide a controllable lipid bilayer for solubilizing membrane proteins. This Young Scientist Perspective focuses on native MS of intact nanodiscs and highlights the unique experiments enabled by making membranes fly, including studying membrane protein-lipid interactions and exploring the specificity of fragile transmembrane peptide complexes. It will also explore current challenges and future perspectives for interfacing nanodiscs with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Marty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
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3
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Techner JM, Kightlinger W, Lin L, Hershewe J, Ramesh A, DeLisa MP, Jewett MC, Mrksich M. High-Throughput Synthesis and Analysis of Intact Glycoproteins Using SAMDI-MS. Anal Chem 2020; 92:1963-1971. [PMID: 31854989 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
High-throughput quantification of the post-translational modification of many individual protein samples is challenging with current label-based methods. This paper demonstrates an efficient method that addresses this gap by combining Escherichia coli-based cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) and self-assembled monolayers for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (SAMDI-MS) to analyze intact proteins. This high-throughput approach begins with polyhistidine-tagged protein substrates expressed from linear DNA templates by CFPS. Here, we synthesized an 87-member library of the E. coli Immunity Protein 7 (Im7) containing an acceptor sequence optimized for glycosylation by the Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae N-glycosyltransferase (NGT) at every possible position along the protein backbone. These protein substrates were individually treated with NGT and then selectively immobilized to self-assembled monolayers presenting nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni-NTA) complexes before final analysis by SAMDI-MS to quantify the conversion of substrate to glycoprotein. This method offers new opportunities for rapid synthesis and quantitative evaluation of intact glycoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ashvita Ramesh
- Feinberg School of Medicine , Northwestern University , Chicago , Illinois 60611 , United States
| | - Matthew P DeLisa
- Department of Microbiology, Nancy E. and Peter C. Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Biochemistry, Molecular and Cell Biology, and Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , Cornell University , Ithaca , New York 14853 , United States
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4
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Liu X, Carbonell C, Braunschweig AB. Towards scanning probe lithography-based 4D nanoprinting by advancing surface chemistry, nanopatterning strategies, and characterization protocols. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 45:6289-6310. [PMID: 27460011 DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00349d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Biointerfaces direct some of the most complex biological events, including cell differentiation, hierarchical organization, and disease progression, or are responsible for the remarkable optical, electronic, and biological behavior of natural materials. Chemical information encoded within the 4D nanostructure of biointerfaces - comprised of the three Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), and chemical composition of each molecule within a given volume - dominates their interfacial properties. As such, there is a strong interest in creating printing platforms that can emulate the 4D nanostructure - including both the chemical composition and architectural complexity - of biointerfaces. Current nanolithography technologies are unable to recreate 4D nanostructures with the chemical or architectural complexity of their biological counterparts because of their inability to position organic molecules in three dimensions and with sub-1 micrometer resolution. Achieving this level of control over the interfacial structure requires transformational advances in three complementary research disciplines: (1) the scope of organic reactions that can be successfully carried out on surfaces must be increased, (2) lithography tools are needed that are capable of positioning soft organic and biologically active materials with sub-1 micrometer resolution over feature diameter, feature-to-feature spacing, and height, and (3) new techniques for characterizing the 4D structure of interfaces should be developed and validated. This review will discuss recent advances in these three areas, and how their convergence is leading to a revolution in 4D nanomanufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Carlos Carbonell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA and Advanced Science Research Center (ASRC), City University of New York, New York, New York 10031, USA
| | - Adam B Braunschweig
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA and Advanced Science Research Center (ASRC), City University of New York, New York, New York 10031, USA and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City University of New York, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA.
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5
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Wasserberg D, Cabanas-Danés J, Prangsma J, O’Mahony S, Cazade PA, Tromp E, Blum C, Thompson D, Huskens J, Subramaniam V, Jonkheijm P. Controlling Protein Surface Orientation by Strategic Placement of Oligo-Histidine Tags. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9068-9083. [PMID: 28850777 PMCID: PMC5618149 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We report oriented immobilization of proteins using the standard hexahistidine (His6)-Ni2+:NTA (nitrilotriacetic acid) methodology, which we systematically tuned to give control of surface coverage. Fluorescence microscopy and surface plasmon resonance measurements of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of red fluorescent proteins (TagRFP) showed that binding strength increased by 1 order of magnitude for each additional His6-tag on the TagRFP proteins. All TagRFP variants with His6-tags located on only one side of the barrel-shaped protein yielded a 1.5 times higher surface coverage compared to variants with His6-tags on opposite sides of the so-called β-barrel. Time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy measurements supported by polarized infrared spectroscopy verified that the orientation (and thus coverage and functionality) of proteins on surfaces can be controlled by strategic placement of a His6-tag on the protein. Molecular dynamics simulations show how the differently tagged proteins reside at the surface in "end-on" and "side-on" orientations with each His6-tag contributing to binding. Also, not every dihistidine subunit in a given His6-tag forms a full coordination bond with the Ni2+:NTA SAMs, which varied with the position of the His6-tag on the protein. At equal valency but different tag positions on the protein, differences in binding were caused by probing for Ni2+:NTA moieties and by additional electrostatic interactions between different fractions of the β-barrel structure and charged NTA moieties. Potential of mean force calculations indicate there is no specific single-protein interaction mode that provides a clear preferential surface orientation, suggesting that the experimentally measured preference for the end-on orientation is a supra-protein, not a single-protein, effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Wasserberg
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jordi Cabanas-Danés
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jord Prangsma
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Shane O’Mahony
- Department
of Physics, Bernal Institute, University
of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Pierre-Andre Cazade
- Department
of Physics, Bernal Institute, University
of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Eldrich Tromp
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Blum
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Damien Thompson
- Department
of Physics, Bernal Institute, University
of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Vinod Subramaniam
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
- Free
University of Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pascal Jonkheijm
- Bioinspired
Molecular Engineering Laboratory, MIRA Biomedical Technology
and Technical Medicine Institute, Molecular nanoFabrication Group, MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, and Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology,
and MIRA Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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6
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O'Kane PT, Mrksich M. An Assay Based on SAMDI Mass Spectrometry for Profiling Protein Interaction Domains. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:10320-10327. [PMID: 28689418 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b03805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes an assay that can profile the binding of a protein to ligands and can rank the affinities of a library of ligands. The method is based on the enhanced rate of an enzyme-mediated reaction that follows from colocalization of the enzyme and substrate by a protein-ligand interaction. This assay uses a self-assembled monolayer that presents a candidate peptide ligand for a receptor and a peptide substrate for an enzyme. The receptor is prepared as a fusion to the relevant enzyme so that binding of the receptor to the immobilized ligand brings the enzyme to the surface, where it can more rapidly modify its substrate. The extent of conversion of the substrate to product is therefore a measure of the average time the ligand-receptor complex is present and is quantified using the SAMDI mass spectrometry technique. The approach is used to profile the binding of chromodomain proteins to methylated lysine peptides derived from the histone 3 protein. The relative affinities for the peptide ligands found in this work agreed with results from prior studies. Additionally, this work revealed cross-talk interactions whereby phosphorylation of certain residues impaired binding of chromodomains to the peptide ligands. The method presented here, which we term protein interaction by SAMDI (PI-SAMDI), has the advantages that it is applicable to low-affinity interactions because the complexes are not observed directly, but rather leave a "covalent record" of the interaction that is measured with mass spectrometry and because it is compatible with laboratory automation for high-throughput analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick T O'Kane
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Milan Mrksich
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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7
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Rouck J, Krapf J, Roy J, Huff H, Das A. Recent advances in nanodisc technology for membrane protein studies (2012-2017). FEBS Lett 2017; 591:2057-2088. [PMID: 28581067 PMCID: PMC5751705 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Historically, the main barrier to membrane protein investigations has been the tendency of membrane proteins to aggregate (due to their hydrophobic nature), in aqueous solution as well as on surfaces. The introduction of biomembrane mimetics has since stimulated momentum in the field. One such mimetic, the nanodisc (ND) system, has proved to be an exceptional system for solubilizing membrane proteins. Herein, we critically evaluate the advantages and imperfections of employing nanodiscs in biophysical and biochemical studies. Specifically, we examine the techniques that have been modified to study membrane proteins in nanodiscs. Techniques discussed here include fluorescence microscopy, solution-state/solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance, electron microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering, and several mass spectroscopy methods. Newer techniques such as SPR, charge-sensitive optical detection, and scintillation proximity assays are also reviewed. Lastly, we cover how nanodiscs are advancing nanotechnology through nanoplasmonic biosensing, lipoprotein-nanoplatelets, and sortase-mediated labeling of nanodiscs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Rouck
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
| | - John Krapf
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
| | - Jahnabi Roy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
| | - Hannah Huff
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
| | - Aditi Das
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science, Division of Nutritional Sciences, Neuroscience Program and Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Urbana IL 61802, USA
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8
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Abstract
Membrane proteins play a most important part in metabolism, signaling, cell motility, transport, development, and many other biochemical and biophysical processes which constitute fundamentals of life on the molecular level. Detailed understanding of these processes is necessary for the progress of life sciences and biomedical applications. Nanodiscs provide a new and powerful tool for a broad spectrum of biochemical and biophysical studies of membrane proteins and are commonly acknowledged as an optimal membrane mimetic system that provides control over size, composition, and specific functional modifications on the nanometer scale. In this review we attempted to combine a comprehensive list of various applications of nanodisc technology with systematic analysis of the most attractive features of this system and advantages provided by nanodiscs for structural and mechanistic studies of membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilia G Denisov
- Department of Biochemistry and Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Stephen G Sligar
- Department of Biochemistry and Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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9
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Alfonso-Garrido J, Garcia-Calvo E, Luque-Garcia JL. Sample preparation strategies for improving the identification of membrane proteins by mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:4893-905. [PMID: 25967148 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8732-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Revised: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Despite enormous advances in the mass spectrometry and proteomics fields during the last two decades, the analysis of membrane proteins still remains a challenge for the proteomic community. Membrane proteins play a wide number of key roles in several cellular events, making them relevant target molecules to study in a significant variety of investigations (e.g., cellular signaling, immune surveillance, drug targets, vaccine candidates, etc.). Here, we critically review the several attempts that have been carried out on the different steps of the sample preparation procedure to improve and modify existing conventional proteomic strategies in order to make them suitable for the study of membrane proteins. We also revise novel techniques that have been designed to tackle the difficult but relevant task of identifying and characterizing membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Alfonso-Garrido
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Complutense s/n, 28004, Madrid, Spain
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10
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Liang B, Ju Y, Joubert JR, Kaleta EJ, Lopez R, Jones IW, Hall HK, Ratnayaka SN, Wysocki VH, Saavedra SS. Label-free detection and identification of protein ligands captured by receptors in a polymerized planar lipid bilayer using MALDI-TOF MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:2777-89. [PMID: 25694144 PMCID: PMC4417943 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8508-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with affinity capture is a well-established method to extract biological analytes from complex samples followed by label-free detection and identification. Many bioanalytes of interest bind to membrane-associated receptors; however, the matrices and high-vacuum conditions inherent to MALDI-TOF MS make it largely incompatible with the use of artificial lipid membranes with incorporated receptors as platforms for detection of captured proteins and peptides. Here we show that cross-linking polymerization of a planar supported lipid bilayer (PSLB) provides the stability needed for MALDI-TOF MS analysis of proteins captured by receptors embedded in the membrane. PSLBs composed of poly(bis-sorbylphosphatidylcholine) (poly(bis-SorbPC)) and doped with the ganglioside receptors GM1 and GD1a were used for affinity capture of the B subunits of cholera toxin, heat-labile enterotoxin, and pertussis toxin. The three toxins were captured simultaneously, then detected and identified by MS on the basis of differences in their molecular weights. Poly(bis-SorbPC) PSLBs are inherently resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption, which allowed selective toxin detection to be achieved in complex matrices (bovine serum and shrimp extract). Using GM1-cholera toxin subunit B as a model receptor-ligand pair, we estimated the minimal detectable concentration of toxin to be 4 nM. On-plate tryptic digestion of bound cholera toxin subunit B followed by MS/MS analysis of digested peptides was performed successfully, demonstrating the feasibility of using the PSLB-based affinity capture platform for identification of unknown, membrane-associated proteins. Overall, this work demonstrates that combining a poly(lipid) affinity capture platform with MALDI-TOF MS detection is a viable approach for capture and proteomic characterization of membrane-associated proteins in a label-free manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boying Liang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | | | - James R. Joubert
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Erin J. Kaleta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Rodrigo Lopez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Ian W. Jones
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Henry K. Hall
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Saliya N. Ratnayaka
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | | | - S. Scott Saavedra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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11
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Kim S, Oh H, Yeo WS. Analysis of alkanethiolates on gold with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13765-015-0018-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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12
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Voelker AE, Viswanathan R. Synthesis of a Suite of Bioorthogonal Glutathione S-Transferase Substrates and Their Enzymatic Incorporation for Protein Immobilization. J Org Chem 2013; 78:9647-58. [DOI: 10.1021/jo401278x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alden E. Voelker
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Millis Science Center: Rm
216, 2074 Adelbert Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-7078, United States
| | - Rajesh Viswanathan
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Millis Science Center: Rm
216, 2074 Adelbert Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-7078, United States
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13
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Ruehrer S, Michel H. ExploitingLeishmania tarentolaecell-free extracts for the synthesis of human solute carriers. Mol Membr Biol 2013; 30:288-302. [DOI: 10.3109/09687688.2013.807362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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14
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Kuhnline Sloan CD, Marty MT, Sligar SG, Bailey RC. Interfacing lipid bilayer nanodiscs and silicon photonic sensor arrays for multiplexed protein-lipid and protein-membrane protein interaction screening. Anal Chem 2013; 85:2970-6. [PMID: 23425255 PMCID: PMC3600637 DOI: 10.1021/ac3037359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Soluble proteins are key mediators of many biochemical signaling pathways via direct interaction with the lipid bilayer and via membrane-bound receptors. Components of the cell membrane are involved in many important biological processes, including viral infection, blood clotting, and signal transduction, and as such, they are common targets of therapeutic agents. Therefore, the development of analytical approaches to study interactions at the cell membrane is of critical importance. Herein, we integrate two key technologies, silicon photonic microring resonator arrays and phospholipid bilayer nanodiscs, which together allow multiplexed screening of soluble protein interactions with lipid and membrane-embedded targets. Microring resonator arrays are an intrinsically multiplexable, label-free analysis platform that has previously been applied to studying protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, and nucleic acid-nucleic acid interactions. Nanodiscs are protein-stabilized lipid assemblies that represent a convenient construct to mimic the native phospholipid bilayer, investigate the effects of membrane composition, and solubilize membrane-embedded targets. Exploiting the natural affinity of nanodisc-supported lipid bilayers for oxide-passivated silicon, we assembled single and multiplex sensor arrays via direct physisorption, characterizing electrostatic effects on the nanodisc attachment. Using model systems, we demonstrate the applicability of this platform for the parallel screening of protein interactions with nanodisc-embedded lipids, glycolipids, and membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael T. Marty
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
| | - Stephen G. Sligar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
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15
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Marty MT, Zhang H, Cui W, Blankenship RE, Gross ML, Sligar SG. Native mass spectrometry characterization of intact nanodisc lipoprotein complexes. Anal Chem 2012; 84:8957-60. [PMID: 23061736 DOI: 10.1021/ac302663f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
We describe here the analysis of nanodisc complexes by using native mass spectrometry (MS) to characterize their molecular weight (MW) and polydispersity. Nanodiscs are nanoscale lipid bilayers that offer a platform for solubilizing membrane proteins. Unlike detergent micelles, nanodiscs are native-like lipid bilayers that are well-defined and potentially monodisperse. Their mass spectra allow peak assignment based on differences in the mass of a single lipid per complex. Resultant masses agree closely with predicted values and demonstrate conclusively the narrow dispersity of lipid molecules in the nanodisc. Fragmentation with collisionally activated dissociation (CAD) or electron-capture dissociation (ECD) shows loss of a small number of lipids and eventual collapse of the nanodisc with release of the scaffold protein. These results provide a foundation for future studies utilizing nanodiscs as a platform for launching membrane proteins into the gas phase.
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16
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Zhang Y, Liu L, Daneshfar R, Kitova EN, Li C, Jia F, Cairo CW, Klassen JS. Protein–Glycosphingolipid Interactions Revealed Using Catch-and-Release Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2012; 84:7618-21. [DOI: 10.1021/ac3023857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Zhang
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Lan Liu
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Rambod Daneshfar
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Elena N. Kitova
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Caishun Li
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Feng Jia
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - Christopher W. Cairo
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
| | - John S. Klassen
- Alberta Glycomics
Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G
2G2
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17
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Marty MT, Das A, Sligar SG. Ultra-thin layer MALDI mass spectrometry of membrane proteins in nanodiscs. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:721-9. [PMID: 22057720 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5512-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Nanodiscs have become a leading technology to solubilize membrane proteins for biophysical, enzymatic, and structural investigations. Nanodiscs are nanoscale, discoidal lipid bilayers surrounded by an amphipathic membrane scaffold protein (MSP) belt. A variety of analytical tools has been applied to membrane proteins in nanodiscs, including several recent mass spectrometry studies. Mass spectrometry of full-length proteins is an important technique for analyzing protein modifications, for structural studies, and for identification of proteins present in binding assays. However, traditional matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry methods for analyzing full-length membrane proteins solubilized in nanodiscs are limited by strong signal from the MSP belt and weak signal from the membrane protein inside the nanodisc. Herein, we show that an optimized ultra-thin layer MALDI sample preparation technique dramatically enhances the membrane protein signal and nearly completely eliminates the MSP signal. First-shot MALDI and MALDI imaging are used to characterize the spots formed by the ultra-thin layer method. Furthermore, the membrane protein enhancement and MSP suppression are shown to be independent of the type of membrane protein and are applicable to mixtures of membrane proteins in nanodiscs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Marty
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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18
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Peptide receptor-based selective dinitrotoluene detection using a microcantilever sensor. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 30:249-54. [PMID: 22000759 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2011] [Revised: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We reported that peptide could be utilized as receptor molecule in the gas phase for application in micro/nano sensors by using a specific peptide that recognizes 2,4-dinitrotoluene at room temperature and in an atmospheric environment and measuring changes in the resonant frequency of the peptide immobilized microcantilevers. By using these peptides as receptors on a microcantilever sensor, we were able to experimentally detect 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT) vapor at concentrations as low as parts per billion (ppb) in the gas phase. While resonant frequency changes after binding between 2,4-DNT and the specific peptide receptor that was immobilized on microcantilevers were observed, the resonant frequency of DNT nonspecific peptide immobilized microcantilever did not change when exposed to 2,4-DNT vapor. The limit of detection (LOD) was calculated to be 431 ppt of limit of detection is numerically expected by experimental based on an equation that describes the relationship between the noise-equivalent analyte concentration. These results indicate that the peptide receptors hold great promise for use in the development of an artificial olfactory system and electronic nose based on micro/nanotechnology for monitoring various chemical vapors in the gas phase such as explosive mixtures of chemicals and/or volatile organic compounds.
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Ha NY, Kim SH, Lee TG, Han SY. Rapid characterization of protein chips using microwave-assisted protein tryptic digestion and MALDI mass spectrometry. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:10098-105. [PMID: 21774472 DOI: 10.1021/la201812a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate that the microwave-assisted protein enzymatic digestion (MAPED) method can be successfully applied to the mass spectrometric characterization of proteins captured on the affinity surfaces of protein chips. The microwave-assisted on-chip tryptic digestion method was developed using a domestic microwave, completing the on-chip proteolysis reaction in minutes, whereas the previous on-chip digestion methods by incubation took hours of incubation time. For the model protein chips, antibody-presenting surfaces were prepared, where anti-α-tubulin1 and antibovine serum albumin (BSA) were immobilized on self-assembled monolayers. The resulting digestion efficiency, displaying sequence coverages of 30 and 14% for α-tubulin1 and BSA, respectively, was comparable to the previous time-consuming incubation studies. It allowed the characterization of immunosensed proteins by MASCOT search using peptide mass fingerprinting. In an example of this method for protein chip applications, BSA naturally involved in fetal bovine serum was unambiguously identified on a model protein chip by imaging mass spectrometry. This work shows that biomass spectrometry techniques can be implemented for surface mass spectrometry and biochip applications. Along with recent advances in imaging mass spectrometry, this technique will provide a new opportunity for high-speed, and thus high-throughput in the future, label-free mass spectrometric assays using protein arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Young Ha
- Center for Nano-Bio Convergence, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 305-340, Republic of Korea
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20
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Ley C, Holtmann D, Mangold KM, Schrader J. Immobilization of histidine-tagged proteins on electrodes. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2011; 88:539-51. [PMID: 21840689 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.07.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Revised: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The development of new enzyme immobilization techniques that do not affect catalytic activity or conformation of a protein is an important research task in biotechnology including biosensor applications and heterogeneous reaction systems. One of the most promising approaches for controlled protein immobilization is based on the immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) principle originally developed for protein purification. Here we describe the current status and future perspectives of immobilization of His-tagged proteins on electrode surfaces. Recombinant proteins comprising histidine-tags or histidine rich native proteins have a strong affinity to transition metal ions. For metal ion immobilization at the electrode surface different matrices can be used such as self-assembled monolayers or conductive polymers. This specific technique allows a reversible immobilization of histidine-tagged proteins at electrodes in a defined orientation which is an important prerequisite for efficient electron transfer between the electrode and the biomolecule. Any application requiring immobilized biocatalysts on electrodes can make use of this immobilization approach, making future biosensors and biocatalytic technologies more sensitive, simpler, reusable and less expensive while only requiring mild enzyme modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Ley
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Karl-Winnacker-Institut, DECHEMA e.V., Theodor-Heuss-Allee 25, 60486 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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21
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Borch J, Roepstorff P, Møller-Jensen J. Nanodisc-based co-immunoprecipitation for mass spectrometric identification of membrane-interacting proteins. Mol Cell Proteomics 2011; 10:O110.006775. [PMID: 21532009 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.o110.006775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteomic identification of protein interactions with membrane associated molecules in their native membrane environment pose a challenge because of technical problems of membrane handling. We investigate the possibility of employing membrane nanodiscs for harboring the membrane associated molecule to tackle the challenges. Nanodiscs are stable, homogenous pieces of membrane with a discoidal shape. They are stabilized by an encircling amphipatic protein with an engineered epitope tag. In the present study we employ the epitope tag of the nanodiscs for detection and co-immunoprecipitation of interaction partners of the glycolipid ganglioside GM1 harbored by nanodiscs. Highly specific binding activity for nanodisc-GM1 immobilized on sensorchips was observed by surface plasmon resonance in culture media from enterotoxigenic Escherischia coli. To isolate the interaction partner(s) from enterotoxigenic Escherischia coli, GM1-nanodiscs were employed for co-immunoprecipitation. The B subunit of heat labile enterotoxin was identified as a specific interaction partner by mass spectrometry, thus demonstrating that nanodisc technology is useful for highly specific detection and identification of interaction partners to specific lipids embedded in a membrane bilayer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Borch
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark.
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22
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Seo H, Choi I, Lee J, Kim S, Kim DE, Kim SK, Yeo WS. Facile Method for Development of Ligand-Patterned Substrates Induced by a Chemical Reaction. Chemistry 2011; 17:5804-7. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201100084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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23
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Bricarello DA, Smilowitz JT, Zivkovic AM, German JB, Parikh AN. Reconstituted lipoprotein: a versatile class of biologically-inspired nanostructures. ACS NANO 2011; 5:42-57. [PMID: 21182259 DOI: 10.1021/nn103098m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
One of biology's most pervasive nanostructures, the phospholipid membrane, represents an ideal scaffold for a host of nanotechnology applications. Whether engineering biomimetic technologies or designing therapies to interface with the cell, this adaptable membrane can provide the necessary molecular-level control of membrane-anchored proteins, glycopeptides, and glycolipids. If appropriately prepared, these components can replicate in vitro or influence in vivo essential living processes such as signal transduction, mass transport, and chemical or energy conversion. To satisfy these requirements, a lipid-based, synthetic nanoscale architecture with molecular-level tunability is needed. In this regard, discrete lipid particles, including reconstituted high density lipoprotein (HDL), have emerged as a versatile and elegant solution. Structurally diverse, native biological HDLs exist as discoidal lipid bilayers of 5-8 nm diameter and lipid monolayer-coated spheres 10-15 nm in diameter, all belted by a robust scaffolding protein. These supramolecular assemblies can be reconstituted using simple self-assembly methods to incorporate a broad range of amphipathic molecular constituents, natural or artificial, and provide a generic platform for stabilization and transport of amphipathic and hydrophobic elements capable of docking with targets at biological or inorganic surfaces. In conjunction with top-down or bottom-up engineering approaches, synthetic HDL can be designed, arrayed, and manipulated for a host of applications including biochemical analyses and fundamental studies of molecular structure. Also highly biocompatible, these assemblies are suitable for medical diagnostics and therapeutics. The collection of efforts reviewed here focuses on laboratory methods by which synthetic HDLs are produced, the advantages conferred by their nanoscopic dimension, and current and emerging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Bricarello
- Department of Applied Science, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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24
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Zaitseva E, Saavedra M, Banerjee S, Sakmar TP, Vogel R. SEIRA spectroscopy on a membrane receptor monolayer using lipoprotein particles as carriers. Biophys J 2011; 99:2327-35. [PMID: 20923668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2010.06.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) difference spectroscopy can probe reactions in a protein monolayer tethered to a nanostructured gold surface. SEIRA studies of membrane proteins, however, remain challenging due to sample stability, effects of the metal surface on function, and the need for a membrane-mimicking environment. Here we demonstrate and characterize a model system for membrane receptor investigations using SEIRA spectroscopy. The system employs nanoscale apolipoprotein bound bilayer (NABB) particles, similar to discoidal high-density lipoprotein particles, as soluble carriers for the G-protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin. The His-tag of the engineered apolipoprotein allows for selective binding of the NABBs to a Ni-NTA modified surface, while the lipid environment of the particle ensures stability and protection of the embedded receptor. Using SEIRA spectroscopy, we followed specific binding of rhodopsin-loaded NABB particles to the surface and formation of a membrane protein monolayer. Functionality of the photoreceptor in the immobilized NABBs was probed by SEIRA difference spectroscopy confirming protein conformational changes associated with photoactivation. Orientation of the immobilized NABB particles was assessed by comparing SEIRA data with polarized attenuated total reflection-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Thus, SEIRA difference spectroscopy supported by the NABB technology provides a promising approach for further functional studies of transmembrane receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Zaitseva
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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25
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Samanta D, Sarkar A. Immobilization of bio-macromolecules on self-assembled monolayers: methods and sensor applications. Chem Soc Rev 2011; 40:2567-92. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cs00056f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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26
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Raschle T, Hiller S, Etzkorn M, Wagner G. Nonmicellar systems for solution NMR spectroscopy of membrane proteins. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2010; 20:471-9. [PMID: 20570504 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2010.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 05/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Integral membrane proteins play essential roles in many biological processes, such as energy transduction, transport of molecules, and signaling. The correct function of membrane proteins is likely to depend strongly on the chemical and physical properties of the membrane. However, membrane proteins are not accessible to many biophysical methods in their native cellular membrane. A major limitation for their functional and structural characterization is thus the requirement for an artificial environment that mimics the native membrane to preserve the integrity and stability of the membrane protein. Most commonly employed are detergent micelles, which can however be detrimental to membrane protein activity and stability. Here, we review recent developments for alternative, nonmicellar solubilization techniques, with a particular focus on their application to solution NMR studies. We discuss the use of amphipols and lipid bilayer systems, such as bicelles and nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs). The latter show great promise for structural studies in near native membranes.
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27
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Berrade L, Garcia AE, Camarero JA. Protein microarrays: novel developments and applications. Pharm Res 2010; 28:1480-99. [PMID: 21116694 PMCID: PMC3137928 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-010-0325-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Protein microarray technology possesses some of the greatest potential for providing direct information on protein function and potential drug targets. For example, functional protein microarrays are ideal tools suited for the mapping of biological pathways. They can be used to study most major types of interactions and enzymatic activities that take place in biochemical pathways and have been used for the analysis of simultaneous multiple biomolecular interactions involving protein-protein, protein-lipid, protein-DNA and protein-small molecule interactions. Because of this unique ability to analyze many kinds of molecular interactions en masse, the requirement of very small sample amount and the potential to be miniaturized and automated, protein microarrays are extremely well suited for protein profiling, drug discovery, drug target identification and clinical prognosis and diagnosis. The aim of this review is to summarize the most recent developments in the production, applications and analysis of protein microarrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Berrade
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, 1985 Zonal Avenue, PSC 616, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
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28
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Tark SH, Das A, Sligar S, Dravid VP. Nanomechanical detection of cholera toxin using microcantilevers functionalized with ganglioside nanodiscs. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 21:435502. [PMID: 20890017 PMCID: PMC3868204 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/21/43/435502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The label-free detection of cholera toxin is demonstrated using microcantilevers functionalized with ganglioside nanodiscs. The cholera toxin molecules bind specifically to the active membrane protein encased in nanodiscs, nanoscale lipid bilayers surrounded by an amphipathic protein belt, immobilized on the cantilever surface. The specific molecular binding results in cantilever deflection via the formation of a surface stress-induced bending moment. The nanomechanical cantilever response is quantitatively monitored by optical interference. The consistent and reproducible nanomechanical detection of cholera toxin in nanomolar range concentrations is demonstrated. The results validated with such a model system suggest that the combination of a microcantilever platform with receptor nanodiscs is a promising approach for monitoring invasive pathogens and other types of biomolecular detection relevant to drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo-Hyun Tark
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Aditi Das
- Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Stephen Sligar
- Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Vinayak P. Dravid
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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29
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Cytochromes P450 in nanodiscs. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2010; 1814:223-9. [PMID: 20685623 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2010.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Nanodiscs have proven to be a versatile tool for the study all types of membrane proteins, including receptors, transporters, enzymes and viral antigens. The self-assembled Nanodisc system provides a robust and common means for rendering these targets soluble in aqueous media while providing a native like bilayer environment that maintains functional activity. This system has thus provided a means for studying the extensive collection of membrane bound cytochromes P450 with the same biochemical and biophysical tools that have been previously limited to use with the soluble P450s. These include a plethora of spectroscopic, kinetic and surface based methods. Significant improvements in homogeneity and stability of these preparations open new possibilities for detailed analysis of equilibrium and steady-state kinetic characteristics of catalytic mechanisms of human cytochromes P450 involved in xenobiotic metabolism and in steroid biosynthesis. The experimental methods developed for physico-chemical and functional studies of membrane cytochromes P450 incorporated in Nanodiscs allow for more detailed understanding of the scientific questions along the lines pioneered by Professor Klaus Ruckpaul and his array of colleagues and collaborators.
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30
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Popot JL. Amphipols, Nanodiscs, and Fluorinated Surfactants: Three Nonconventional Approaches to Studying Membrane Proteins in Aqueous Solutions. Annu Rev Biochem 2010; 79:737-75. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.052208.114057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Popot
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie Moléculaire des Protéines Membranaires, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7099, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université Paris-7 Denis Diderot, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, F-75005 Paris, France; e-mail:
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31
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Protein immobilization at gold–thiol surfaces and potential for biosensing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:1545-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3708-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 03/29/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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32
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Sobieściak TD, Zielenkiewicz P. Double Selective Synthetic Approach to the N-Functionalized 1,4,7-Triazacyclononane Derivatives: Chelating Compounds for Controllable Protein Orientation. J Org Chem 2010; 75:2069-72. [DOI: 10.1021/jo902504d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz D. Sobieściak
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, Warsaw 02-106, Poland
| | - Piotr Zielenkiewicz
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, Warsaw 02-106, Poland
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33
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Eisenberg JL, Piper JL, Mrksich M. Using self-assembled monolayers to model cell adhesion to the 9th and 10th type III domains of fibronectin. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:13942-51. [PMID: 20560553 PMCID: PMC2790603 DOI: 10.1021/la901528c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Most mammalian cells must adhere to the extracellular matrix (ECM) to maintain proper growth and development. Fibronectin is a predominant ECM protein that engages integrin cell receptors through its Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) and Pro-His-Ser-Arg-Asn (PHSRN) peptide binding sites. To study the roles these motifs play in cell adhesion, proteins derived from the 9th (containing PHSRN) and 10th (containing RGD) type III fibronectin domains were engineered to be in frame with cutinase, a serine esterase that forms a site-specific, covalent adduct with phosphonate ligands. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) that present phosphonate ligands against an inert background of tri(ethylene glycol) groups were used as model substrates to immobilize the cutinase-fibronectin fusion proteins. Baby hamster kidney cells attached efficiently to all protein surfaces, but only spread efficiently on protein monolayers containing the RGD peptide. Cells on RGD-containing protein surfaces also displayed defined focal adhesions and organized cytoskeletal structures compared to cells on PHSRN-presenting surfaces. Cell attachment and spreading were shown to be unaffected by the presence of PHSRN when compared to RGD alone on SAMs presenting higher densities of protein, but PHSRN supported an increased efficiency in cell attachment when presented at low protein densities with RGD. Treatment of suspended cells with soluble RGD or PHSRN peptides revealed that both peptides were able to inhibit the attachment of FN10 surfaces. These results support a model wherein PHSRN and RGD bind competitively to integrins--rather than a two-point synergistic interaction--and the presence of PHSRN serves to increase the density of ligand on the substrate and therefore enhance the sticking probability of cells during attachment.
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34
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Bayburt TH, Sligar SG. Membrane protein assembly into Nanodiscs. FEBS Lett 2009; 584:1721-7. [PMID: 19836392 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 557] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Nanodiscs are soluble nanoscale phospholipid bilayers which can self-assemble integral membrane proteins for biophysical, enzymatic or structural investigations. This means for rendering membrane proteins soluble at the single molecule level offers advantages over liposomes or detergent micelles in terms of size, stability, ability to add genetically modifiable features to the Nanodisc structure and ready access to both sides of the phospholipid bilayer domain. Thus the Nanodisc system provides a novel platform for understanding membrane protein function. We provide an overview of the Nanodisc approach and document through several examples many of the applications to the study of the structure and function of integral membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy H Bayburt
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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35
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Hong M, Zhou X, Li J, Tian Y, Zhu J. Nanoscale Architecture Dictates Detection Profile of Surface-Confined DNA by MALDI-TOF MS. Anal Chem 2009; 81:8839-45. [DOI: 10.1021/ac901815v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Hong
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China, and Department of Chemistry, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China, and Department of Chemistry, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China
| | - Jiping Li
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China, and Department of Chemistry, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China
| | - Yuan Tian
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China, and Department of Chemistry, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China
| | - Jin Zhu
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China, and Department of Chemistry, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China
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36
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Abstract
Abstract
A major challenge in the research on membrane-anchored and integral membrane protein complexes is to obtain these in a functionally active, water-soluble, and monodisperse form. This requires the incorporation of the membrane proteins into a native-like membrane or detergent micelle that mimics the properties of the original biological membrane. However, solubilization in detergents or reconstitution in liposomes or supported monolayers sometimes suffers from loss of activity and problematic analyses due to heterogeneity and aggregation. A developing technology termed nanodiscs exploits discoidal phospholipid bilayers encircled by a stabilizing amphipatic helical membrane scaffold protein to reconstitute membranes with integral proteins. After reconstitution, the membrane nanodisc is soluble, stable, and monodisperse. In the present review, we outline the biological inspiration for nanodiscs as discoidal high-density lipoproteins, the assembly and handling of nanodiscs, and finally their diverse biochemical applications. In our view, major advantages of nanodisc technology for integral membrane proteins is homogeneity, control of oligomerization state, access to both sides of the membrane, and control of lipids in the local membrane environment of the integral protein.
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Jelinek R, Silbert L. Biomimetic approaches for studying membrane processes. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2009; 5:811-8. [PMID: 19603114 DOI: 10.1039/b907223n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This short review focuses on recent innovative systems and experimental approaches designed to investigate membrane processes and biomolecular interactions associated with membranes. Our emphasis is on "biomimetics" which reflects the significance and contributions of the chemistry/biology interface in addressing complex biological questions. We have not limited this review to discussion of new "sensors" or "assays"per se, but rather we tried to review new concepts employed for analysis of membrane processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raz Jelinek
- Department of Chemistry, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel.
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Das A, Zhao J, Schatz GC, Sligar SG, Van Duyne RP. Screening of type I and II drug binding to human cytochrome P450-3A4 in nanodiscs by localized surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2009; 81:3754-9. [PMID: 19364136 PMCID: PMC4757437 DOI: 10.1021/ac802612z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A prototype nanoparticle biosensor based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) spectroscopy was developed to detect drug binding to human membrane-bound cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4). CYP3A4 is one of the most important enzymes in drug and xenobiotic metabolism in the human body. Because of the inherent propensity of CYP3A4 to aggregate, it is difficult to study drug binding to this protein in solution and on surfaces. In this paper, we use a soluble nanometer scale membrane bilayer disk (Nanodisk) to functionally stabilize monomeric CYP3A4 on Ag nanoparticle surfaces fabricated by nanosphere lithography. CYP3A4-Nanodiscs have absorption bands in the visible wavelength region, which upon binding certain drugs shift to either shorter (type I) or longer wavelengths (type II). On the basis of the coupling between the LSPR of the Ag nanoparticles and the electronic resonances of the heme chromophore in CYP3A4-Nanodiscs, LSPR spectroscopy is used to detect drug binding with high sensitivity. This paper combines LSPR and Nanodisc techniques to optically sense drug binding to a functionally stable membrane protein, with the goal of integrating this with microfluidics and expanding it into a multiarray format, enabling high-throughput screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Das
- Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3113
| | - George C. Schatz
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3113
| | - Stephen G. Sligar
- Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Richard P. Van Duyne
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3113
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Ha TK, Oh HB, Chung J, Lee TG, Han SY. Investigation of the MALDI process used to characterize self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates on gold. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:3692-3697. [PMID: 19708149 DOI: 10.1021/la8036567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we investigated the surface processes involved in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry (MS), which produce intact characteristic ions, typically in disulfide form, from self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of alkanethiolates on gold. For the study, SAMs decorated with peptides and a THAP matrix were employed. Using two-laser MS, it was previously found that irradiation with a UV laser gave rise to the direct desorption of SAM molecules from alkanethiol SAMs on gold, producing disulfide species in vacuum. However, a closer examination of this study suggests that the MALDI process in which the matrix is used may not be the case. Instead, the results indicate that the treatment of the matrix solution is responsible for the characteristic ion formation in MALDI MS. We propose that the matrix solution dissolves alkanethiolate molecules from SAMs, leading to the generation of characteristic disulfide species in the solution. The disulfides are then cocrystallized with matrix molecules and subsequently detected by MALDI MS. Because MALDI MS is a powerful tool for biopolymers with high molecular weights, it has been successfully applied to SAMs presenting large biomolecules. This understanding of the MALDI process in the surface MS of alkanethiol SAMs on gold may allow advances in the biomolecular application of SAMs in combination with mass spectrometric analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Kyung Ha
- Center for Nano-Bio Convergence Research, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), Daejeon 305-340, Republic of Korea
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Ritchie TK, Grinkova YV, Bayburt TH, Denisov IG, Zolnerciks JK, Atkins WM, Sligar SG. Chapter 11 - Reconstitution of membrane proteins in phospholipid bilayer nanodiscs. Methods Enzymol 2009; 464:211-31. [PMID: 19903557 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(09)64011-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 631] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembled phospholipid bilayer Nanodiscs have become an important and versatile tool among model membrane systems to functionally reconstitute membrane proteins. Nanodiscs consist of lipid domains encased within an engineered derivative of apolipoprotein A-1 scaffold proteins, which can be tailored to yield homogeneous preparations of disks with different diameters, and with epitope tags for exploitation in various purification strategies. A critical aspect of the self-assembly of target membranes into Nanodiscs lies in the optimization of the lipid:protein ratio. Here we describe strategies for performing this optimization and provide examples for reconstituting bacteriorhodopsin as a trimer, rhodopsin, and functionally active P-glycoprotein. Together, these demonstrate the versatility of Nanodisc technology for preparing monodisperse samples of membrane proteins of wide-ranging structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Ritchie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Jonkheijm P, Weinrich D, Schröder H, Niemeyer CM, Waldmann H. Chemical strategies for generating protein biochips. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:9618-47. [PMID: 19025742 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200801711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 510] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Protein biochips are at the heart of many medical and bioanalytical applications. Increasing interest has been focused on surface activation and subsequent functionalization strategies for immobilizing these biomolecules. Different approaches using covalent and noncovalent chemistry are reviewed; particular emphasis is placed on the chemical specificity of protein attachment and on retention of protein function. Strategies for creating protein patterns (as opposed to protein arrays) are also outlined. An outlook on promising and challenging future directions for protein biochip research and applications is also offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Jonkheijm
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology and Faculty of Chemistry, Chemical Biology, Technical University of Dortmund, Otto Hahn Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
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Jonkheijm P, Weinrich D, Schröder H, Niemeyer C, Waldmann H. Chemische Verfahren zur Herstellung von Proteinbiochips. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200801711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Lee J, Lee J, Kim S, Kim K, Park H, Yeo WS. Mass Spectrometry Signal Amplification Method for Attomolar Detection of Antigens Using Small-Molecule-Tagged Gold Microparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:9518-21. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200803893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Lee J, Lee J, Kim S, Kim K, Park H, Yeo WS. Mass Spectrometry Signal Amplification Method for Attomolar Detection of Antigens Using Small-Molecule-Tagged Gold Microparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200803893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Tsubery H, Mrksich M. Biochemical assays of immobilized oligonucleotides with mass spectrometry. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2008; 24:5433-5438. [PMID: 18407676 DOI: 10.1021/la7040482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports the use of mass spectrometry to characterize oligonucleotides immobilized to the surfaces of biochips. Biotinylated oligonucleotides were immobilized to self-assembled monolayers that present a streptavidin layer and then treated with a complementary strand to present short duplexes. Treatment of the surface with 5-methoxysalicylic acid and ammonium citrate matrix allows the individual oligonucleotides to be observed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/iozation and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Examples are shown wherein this method is applied to assays of hybridization, of cleavage by a deoxyribozyme, of a dephosphorylation reaction, and of the adducts formed on treatment of DNA with cis-platin. This work provides an early example of the application of mass spectrometry to DNA biochips and may substantially expand the applications of the now common oligonucleotide arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haim Tsubery
- Department of Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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Mrksich M. Mass spectrometry of self-assembled monolayers: a new tool for molecular surface science. ACS NANO 2008; 2:7-18. [PMID: 19206542 PMCID: PMC2600870 DOI: 10.1021/nn7004156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Most reactions can be performed in solution and on a surface, yet the challenges faced in applying known reactions or in developing entirely new reactions for modifying surfaces remain formidable. The products of many reactions performed in solution can be characterized in minutes, and even products having complex structures can be characterized in hours. When performed on surfaces, even the most basic reactions require a substantial effort--requiring several weeks--to characterize the yields and structures of the products. This contrast stems from the lack of convenient analytical tools that provide rapid information on the structures of molecules attached to a surface. This review describes recent work that has established mass spectrometry as a powerful method for developing and characterizing a broad range of chemical reactions of molecules attached to self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates on gold. The SAMDI-TOF mass spectrometry technique will enable a next generation of applications of molecularly defined surfaces to problems in chemistry and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Mrksich
- Department of Chemistry and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The University of Chicago, 929 East 57th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60521, USA.
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