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Soria-Castro SM, Politano F, Raston CL, Oksdath-Mansilla G. Spinning Reactors for Process Intensification of Flow Photochemistry. Chempluschem 2024; 89:e202300784. [PMID: 38373019 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202300784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
The design of new and more sustainable synthetic protocols to access new materials or valuable compounds will have a high impact on the broader chemistry community. In this sense, continuous-flow photochemistry has emerged as a powerful technique which has been employed successfully in various areas such as biopharma, organic chemistry, as well as materials science. However, it is important to note that chemical processes must not only advance towards new or improved chemical transformations, but also implement new technologies that enable new process opportunities. For this reason, the design of novel photoreactors is key to advancing photochemical strategies. In this sense, the use of equipment and techniques embracing processes intensification is important in developing more sustainable protocols. Among the most recent applications, spinning continuous flow reactors, such as rotor reactors or vortex reactors, have shown promising performance as new synthetic tools. Nevertheless, there is currently no review in the literature that effectively summarizes and showcases the most recent applications of such type of photoreactors. Herein, we highlight fundamental aspects and applications of two categories of spinning reactors, the Spinning Disc Reactors (SDRs) and Thin Film Vortex reactors, critiquing the scope and limitations of these advanced processing technologies. Further, we take a view on the future of spinning reactors in flow as a synthetic toolbox to explore new photochemical transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia M Soria-Castro
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fabrizio Politano
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Colin L Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Gabriela Oksdath-Mansilla
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
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2
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He S, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Luo X, Gibson CT, Gao J, Jellicoe M, Wang H, Young DJ, Raston CL. Enhanced mechanical strength of vortex fluidic mediated biomass-based biodegradable films composed from agar, alginate and kombucha cellulose hydrolysates. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127076. [PMID: 37769780 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradable, biomass derived kombucha cellulose films with increased mechanical strength from 9.98 MPa to 18.18 MPa were prepared by vortex fluidic device (VFD) processing. VFD processing not only reduced the particle size of kombucha cellulose from approximate 2 μm to 1 μm, but also reshaped its structure from irregular to round. The increased mechanical strength of these polysaccharide-derived films is the result of intensive micromixing and high shear stress of a liquid thin film in a VFD. This arises from the incorporation at the micro-structural level of uniform, unidirectional strings of kombucha cellulose hydrolysates, which resulted from the topological fluid flow in the VFD. The biodegradability of the VFD generated polymer films was not compromised relative to traditionally generated films. Both films were biodegraded within 5 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan He
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan City, China; College of Engineering, IT & Environment, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia; Flinders Institute for Nanoscale and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Yixiao Wu
- College of Engineering, IT & Environment, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia
| | - Yang Zhang
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan City, China
| | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Christopher T Gibson
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jingrong Gao
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan City, China; Flinders Institute for Nanoscale and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Matt Jellicoe
- Institute of Process Research & Development, School of Chemistry and School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Hao Wang
- College of Engineering, IT & Environment, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia.
| | - David J Young
- College of Engineering, IT & Environment, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia.
| | - Colin L Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia.
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3
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Vimalanathan K, Zhang Z, Zou J, Raston CL. Vortex fluidic high shear induced crystallisation of fullerene C 70 into nanotubules. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023. [PMID: 37469308 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc02464d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Hollow C70 nanotubules are formed under high shear within the thin film of a vortex fluidic device (VFD) without the need for using auxiliary reagents, high temperatures and pressures, and/or requiring downstream processing. This novel bottom-up crystallisation process involves intense micro mixing of two liquids (toluene solution of C70 and anti-solvent, isopropyl alcohol) within a thin film in the VFD to precisely control the hierarchical assembly of C70 molecules into hollow nanotubules. The mechanism of self-assembly was consistent with them being a mould of the high shear double helical topological flow from Faraday waves coupled with Coriolis forces generated within the thin film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasturi Vimalanathan
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
| | - Zhi Zhang
- Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Jin Zou
- Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Colin L Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
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4
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Luo X, Xing W, Delcheva I, Abdullah Alrashaidi F, Heydari A, Palms D, Truong VK, Vasilev K, Jia Z, Zhang W, Su P, Vimalanathan K, Igder A, Weiss GA, Tang Y, MacGregor M, Raston CL. Printable Hydrogel Arrays for Portable and High-Throughput Shear-Mediated Assays. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 37339239 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c02353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels have been widely used to entrap biomolecules for various biocatalytic reactions. However, solute diffusion in these matrices to initiate such reactions can be a very slow process. Conventional mixing remains a challenge as it can cause irreversible distortion or fragmentation of the hydrogel itself. To overcome the diffusion-limit, a shear-stress-mediated platform named the portable vortex-fluidic device (P-VFD) is developed. P-VFD is a portable platform which consists of two main components, (i) a plasma oxazoline-coated polyvinyl chloride (POx-PVC) film with polyacrylamide and alginate (PAAm/Alg-Ca2+) tough hydrogel covalently bound to its surface and (ii) a reactor tube (L × D: 90 mm × 20 mm) where the aforementioned POx-PVC film could be readily inserted for reactions. Through a spotting machine, the PAAm/Alg-Ca2+ hydrogel can be readily printed on a POx-PVC film in an array pattern and up to 25.4 J/m2 adhesion energy can be achieved. The hydrogel arrays on the film not only offer a strong matrix for entrapping biomolecules such as streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase but are also shear stress-tolerant in the reactor tube, enabling a >6-fold increase in its reaction rate after adding tetramethylbenzidine, relative to incubation. Through using the tough hydrogel and its stably bonded substrate, this portable platform effectively overcomes the diffusion-limit and achieves fast assay detection without causing appreciable hydrogel array deformation or dislocation on the substrate film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Wenjin Xing
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Iliana Delcheva
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Fayed Abdullah Alrashaidi
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, Jouf University, P.O. Box 2014, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amir Heydari
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
- Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil 56199-11367, Iran
| | - Dennis Palms
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Vi Khanh Truong
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Krasimir Vasilev
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Zhongfan Jia
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Wei Zhang
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Peng Su
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Kasturi Vimalanathan
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Aghil Igder
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Gregory A Weiss
- Departments of Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Youhong Tang
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Melanie MacGregor
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Colin L Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
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5
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García-Lacuna J, Baumann M. Inline purification in continuous flow synthesis – opportunities and challenges. Beilstein J Org Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.18.182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Continuous flow technology has become the method of choice for many academic and industrial researchers when developing new routes to chemical compounds of interest. With this technology maturing over the last decades, robust and oftentimes automated processes are now commonly exploited to generate fine chemical building blocks. The integration of effective inline analysis and purification tools is thereby frequently exploited to achieve effective and reliable flow processes. This perspective article summarizes recent applications of different inline purification techniques such as chromatography, extractions, and crystallization from academic and industrial laboratories. A discussion of the advantages and drawbacks of these tools is provided as a guide to aid researchers in selecting the most appropriate approach for future applications. It is hoped that this perspective contributes to new developments in this field in the context of process and cost efficiency, sustainability and industrial uptake of new flow chemistry tools developed in academia.
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6
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Zhang Z, Yao T, Han H, Ma Z. Universal and High-Speed Zeptomolar Protein Serum Assay with Unprecedented Sensitivity. Anal Chem 2022; 94:16231-16236. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ze Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Tao Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Hongliang Han
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zhanfang Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
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7
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Lin G, Qiu H. Diverse Supports for Immobilization of Catalysts in Continuous Flow Reactors. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202200069. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.202200069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Geyu Lin
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200240 P. R. China
| | - Huibin Qiu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200240 P. R. China
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Sanders EC, Sen SR, Gelston AA, Santos AM, Luo X, Bhuvan K, Tang DY, Raston CL, Weiss GA. Under-5-Minute Immunoblot Assays by Vortex Fluidic Device Acceleration. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202202021. [PMID: 35333430 PMCID: PMC9156566 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202202021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Unlocking the potential of personalized medicine in point-of-care settings requires a new generation of biomarker and proteomic assays. Ideally, assays could inexpensively perform hundreds of quantitative protein measurements in parallel at the bedsides of patients. This goal greatly exceeds current capabilities. Furthermore, biomarker assays are often challenging to translate from benchtop to clinic due to difficulties achieving and assessing the necessary selectivity, sensitivity, and reproducibility. To address these challenges, we developed an efficient (<5 min), robust (comparatively lower CVs), and inexpensive (decreasing reagent use and cost by >70 %) immunoassay method. Specifically, the immunoblot membrane is dotted with the sample and then developed in a vortex fluidic device (VFD) reactor. All assay steps-blocking, binding, and washing-leverage the unique thin-film microfluidics of the VFD. The approach can accelerate direct, indirect, and sandwich immunoblot assays. The applications demonstrated include assays relevant to both the laboratory and the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily C. Sanders
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Sanjana R. Sen
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Aidan A. Gelston
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Alicia M. Santos
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Sciences and Technology, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042 (AU)
| | - Keertna Bhuvan
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Derek Y. Tang
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
| | - Colin L. Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Sciences and Technology, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042 (AU)
| | - Gregory A. Weiss
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2025 (USA)
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9
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Basso A, Brown MS, Cruz-Izquierdo A, Martinez CA, Serban S. Optimization of Metal Affinity Ketoreductase Immobilization for Application in Batch and Flow Processes. Org Process Res Dev 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.1c00483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Basso
- Unit D, Purolite Ltd., Llantrisant Business Park, Llantrisant CF72 8LF, U.K
| | - Maria S. Brown
- Pfizer Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | | | - Carlos A. Martinez
- Pfizer Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Simona Serban
- Unit D, Purolite Ltd., Llantrisant Business Park, Llantrisant CF72 8LF, U.K
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10
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Weiss GA, Sanders EC, Sen SR, Gelston AA, Santos AM, Luo X, Bhuvan K, Tang DY, Raston CL. Under‐5‐Minute Immunoblot Assays by Vortex Fluidic Device Acceleration. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202202021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Alan Weiss
- University of California, Irvine Department of Chemistry 1102 Natural Sciences 2 92697-2025 Irvine UNITED STATES
| | | | - Sanjana R. Sen
- University of California Irvine Molecular Biology and Biochemistry UNITED STATES
| | | | | | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders University aFlinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology AUSTRALIA
| | | | - Derek Y. Tang
- University of California Irvine Chemistry UNITED STATES
| | - Colin L. Raston
- Flinders University aFlinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology UNITED STATES
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11
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Tavakoli J, Shrestha J, Bazaz SR, Rad MA, Warkiani ME, Raston CL, Tipper JL, Tang Y. Developing Novel Fabrication and Optimisation Strategies on Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoprobe/Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogels for Bio-Applications. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27031002. [PMID: 35164268 PMCID: PMC8840180 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27031002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study describes a new technology, effective for readily preparing a fluorescent (FL) nanoprobe-based on hyperbranched polymer (HB) and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) fluorogen with high brightness to ultimately develop FL hydrogels. We prepared the AIE nanoprobe using a microfluidic platform to mix hyperbranched polymers (HB, generations 2, 3, and 4) with AIE (TPE-2BA) under shear stress and different rotation speeds (0-5 K RPM) and explored the FL properties of the AIE nanoprobe. Our results reveal that the use of HB generation 4 exhibits 30-times higher FL intensity compared to the AIE alone and is significantly brighter and more stable compared to those that are prepared using HB generations 3 and 2. In contrast to traditional methods, which are expensive and time-consuming and involve polymerization and post-functionalization to develop FL hyperbranched molecules, our proposed method offers a one-step method to prepare an AIE-HB nanoprobe with excellent FL characteristics. We employed the nanoprobe to fabricate fluorescent injectable bioadhesive gel and a hydrogel microchip based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The addition of borax (50 mM) to the PVA + AIE nanoprobe results in the development of an injectable bioadhesive fluorescent gel with the ability to control AIEgen release for 300 min. When borax concentration increases two times (100 mM), the adhesion stress is more than two times bigger (7.1 mN/mm2) compared to that of gel alone (3.4 mN/mm2). Excellent dimensional stability and cell viability of the fluorescent microchip, along with its enhanced mechanical properties, proposes its potential applications in mechanobiology and understanding the impact of microstructure in cell studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javad Tavakoli
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
| | - Jesus Shrestha
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
| | - Sajad R. Bazaz
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
| | - Maryam A. Rad
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
| | - Majid E. Warkiani
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
| | - Colin L. Raston
- Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia;
| | - Joanne L. Tipper
- Centre for Health Technologies, School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; (J.T.); (J.S.); (S.R.B.); (M.A.R.); (M.E.W.)
- Correspondence: (J.L.T.); (Y.T.)
| | - Youhong Tang
- Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia;
- Medical Device Research Institute, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
- Correspondence: (J.L.T.); (Y.T.)
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12
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Srivastava A, Saavedra DEM, Thomson B, García JAL, Zhao Z, Patrick WM, Herndl GJ, Baltar F. Enzyme promiscuity in natural environments: alkaline phosphatase in the ocean. THE ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:3375-3383. [PMID: 34050259 PMCID: PMC8528806 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-01013-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Alkaline phosphatase (APase) is one of the marine enzymes used by oceanic microbes to obtain inorganic phosphorus (Pi) from dissolved organic phosphorus to overcome P-limitation. Marine APase is generally recognized to perform P-monoesterase activity. Here we integrated a biochemical characterization of a specific APase enzyme, examination of global ocean databases, and field measurements, to study the type and relevance of marine APase promiscuity. We performed an in silico mining of phoA homologs, followed by de novo synthesis and heterologous expression in E. coli of the full-length gene from Alteromonas mediterranea, resulting in a recombinant PhoA. A global analysis using the TARA Oceans, Malaspina and other metagenomic databases confirmed the predicted widespread distribution of the gene encoding the targeted PhoA in all oceanic basins throughout the water column. Kinetic assays with the purified PhoA enzyme revealed that this enzyme exhibits not only the predicted P-monoester activity, but also P-diesterase, P-triesterase and sulfatase activity as a result of a promiscuous behavior. Among all activities, P-monoester bond hydrolysis exhibited the highest catalytic activity of APase despite its lower affinity for phosphate monoesters. APase is highly efficient as a P-monoesterase at high substrate concentrations, whereas promiscuous activities of APase, like diesterase, triesterase, and sulfatase activities are more efficient at low substrate concentrations. Strong similarities were observed between the monoesterase:diesterase ratio of the purified PhoA protein in the laboratory and in natural seawater. Thus, our results reveal enzyme promiscuity of APase playing potentially an important role in the marine phosphorus cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Srivastava
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel E. M. Saavedra
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Blair Thomson
- grid.29980.3a0000 0004 1936 7830Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Juan A. L. García
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Zihao Zhao
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wayne M. Patrick
- grid.267827.e0000 0001 2292 3111School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Kelburn, New Zealand
| | - Gerhard J. Herndl
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria ,grid.5477.10000000120346234NIOZ, Department of Marine Microbiology and Biogeochemistry, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Utrecht University, Texel, The Netherlands
| | - Federico Baltar
- grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria ,grid.29980.3a0000 0004 1936 7830Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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13
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López-Laguna H, Voltà-Durán E, Parladé E, Villaverde A, Vázquez E, Unzueta U. Insights on the emerging biotechnology of histidine-rich peptides. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 54:107817. [PMID: 34418503 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the late 70's, the discovery of the restriction enzymes made possible the biological production of functional proteins by recombinant DNA technologies, a fact that largely empowered both biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries. Short peptides or small protein domains, with specific molecular affinities, were developed as purification tags in downstream processes to separate the target protein from the culture media or cell debris, upon breaking the producing cells. Among these tags, and by exploiting the interactivity of the imidazole ring of histidine residues, the hexahistidine peptide (H6) became a gold standard. Although initially used almost exclusively in protein production, H6 and related His-rich peptides are progressively proving a broad applicability in novel utilities including enzymatic processes, advanced drug delivery systems and diagnosis, through a so far unsuspected adaptation of their binding capabilities. In this context, the coordination of histidine residues and metals confers intriguing functionalities to His-rich sequences useable in the forward-thinking design of protein-based nano- and micro-materials and devices, through strategies that are comprehensively presented here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hèctor López-Laguna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Eloi Parladé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain.
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain.
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain; Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Mª Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain.
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14
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Jellicoe M, Vimalanathan K, R Gascooke J, Luo X, Raston CL. High shear spheroidal topological fluid flow induced coating of polystyrene beads with C 60 spicules. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:5638-5641. [PMID: 33977917 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc07165j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Spheroidal spicular like topological fluid flow in an angled vortex fluidic device (VFD) housing a 20 mm diameter tube with a hemispherical base rotating at 4k rpm and tilted at 45° is effective in reducing the thermodynamic equilibrium concentration of fullerene C60 in toluene, with the formation of spicules of the material under continuous flow processing. Under the same operational conditions in the presence of polystyrene beads 2 to 6 μm in diameter, spicules of C60ca. 150 nm in length grow on their surfaces. This establishes that the spheroidal topological fluid flow in the VFD prevails while enveloping spheroidal like particles of such size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Jellicoe
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
| | - Kasturi Vimalanathan
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
| | - Jason R Gascooke
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
| | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
| | - Colin L Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
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15
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Li GY, Chen QH, Su CR, Wang H, He S, Liu J, Nag A, Yuan Y. Soy protein-polysaccharide complex coacervate under physical treatment: Effects of pH, ionic strength and polysaccharide type. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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16
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Cao X, Joseph N, Jellicoe M, Al-Antaki AHM, Luo X, Su D, He S, Raston C. Vortex fluidics mediated non-covalent physical entanglement of tannic acid and gelatin for entrapment of nutrients. Food Funct 2021; 12:1087-1096. [PMID: 33416819 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo02230f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a simple process for the entrapment of nutrients in shear stress induced non-covalent physically entangled tannic acid-gelatin gel in a thin film vortex fluidic device (VFD) operating under continuous flow. This allows control of the porosity and surface area of the pores in order to improve the nutrient entrapment capacity. The VFD microfluidic platform simplifies the processing procedure of physically entangled biopolymers, as a time and cost saving one-step process devoid of any organic solvents, in contrast to the conventional homogenization process, which is also inherently complex, involving multiple-step processing. Moreover, the use of homogenization (as a benchmark to entrap nutrients) afforded much larger porosity and surface area of pores, with lower entrapment capacity of nutrients. Overall, the VFD processing provides a new alternative, bottom-up approach for easy, scalable processing for materials with a high nutrient entrapment capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiao Cao
- Department of Food Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China.
| | - Nikita Joseph
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
| | - Matt Jellicoe
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
| | - Ahmed Hussein Mohammed Al-Antaki
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
| | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
| | - Dongxiao Su
- Department of Food Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China.
| | - Shan He
- Department of Food Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China. and Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
| | - Colin Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.
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17
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Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in the use of biocatalysts in flow reactors. This merging combines the high selectivity and mild operation conditions typical of biocatalysis with enhanced mass transfer and resource efficiency associated to flow chemistry. Additionally, it provides a sound environment to emulate Nature by mimicking metabolic pathways in living cells and to produce goods through the systematic organization of enzymes towards efficient cascade reactions. Moreover, by enabling the combination of enzymes from different hosts, this approach paves the way for novel pathways. The present review aims to present recent developments within the scope of flow chemistry involving multi-enzymatic cascade reactions. The types of reactors used are briefly addressed. Immobilization methodologies and strategies for the application of the immobilized biocatalysts are presented and discussed. Key aspects related to the use of whole cells in flow chemistry are presented. The combination of chemocatalysis and biocatalysis is also addressed and relevant aspects are highlighted. Challenges faced in the transition from microscale to industrial scale are presented and discussed.
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18
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Sivo A, Galaverna RDS, Gomes GR, Pastre JC, Vilé G. From circular synthesis to material manufacturing: advances, challenges, and future steps for using flow chemistry in novel application area. REACT CHEM ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0re00411a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We review the emerging use of flow technologies for circular chemistry and material manufacturing, highlighting advances, challenges, and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Sivo
- Department of Chemistry
- Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”
- Politecnico di Milano
- IT-20131 Milano
- Italy
| | | | | | | | - Gianvito Vilé
- Department of Chemistry
- Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”
- Politecnico di Milano
- IT-20131 Milano
- Italy
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19
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Luo X, Al-Antaki AHM, Igder A, Stubbs KA, Su P, Zhang W, Weiss GA, Raston CL. Vortex Fluidic-Mediated Fabrication of Fast Gelated Silica Hydrogels with Embedded Laccase Nanoflowers for Real-Time Biosensing under Flow. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:51999-52007. [PMID: 33151682 PMCID: PMC9943686 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c15669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of hybrid protein-Cu3(PO4)2 nanoflowers (NFs) via an intermediate toroidal structure is dramatically accelerated under shear using a vortex fluidic device (VFD), which possesses a rapidly rotating angled tube. As-prepared laccase NFs (LNFs) exhibit ≈1.8-fold increase in catalytic activity compared to free laccase under diffusion control, which is further enhanced by ≈ 2.9-fold for the catalysis under shear in the VFD. A new LNF immobilization platform, LNF@silica incorporated in a VFD tube, was subsequently developed by mixing the LNFs for 15 min with silica hydrogel resulting in gelation along the VFD tube surface. The resulting LNFs@silica coating is highly stable and reusable, which allows a dramatic 16-fold enhancement in catalytic rates relative to LNF@silica inside glass vials. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy-based real-time monitoring within the LNFs@silica-coated tube reveals good stability of the coating in continuous flow processing. The results demonstrate the utility of the VFD microfluidic platform, further highlighting its ability to control chemical and enzymatic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
- Corresponding Author: . Phone: +61 8 820 12883. (X.L.), . Phone: +61 8 82017958. Fax: +61 8 8201290 (C.L.R)
| | - Ahmed Hussein Mohammed Al-Antaki
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Aghil Igder
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
- School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, WA 6027, Australia
| | - Keith A. Stubbs
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Peng Su
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Wei Zhang
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
| | - Gregory A. Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, CA, 92697-2025, USA
| | - Colin L. Raston
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
- Corresponding Author: . Phone: +61 8 820 12883. (X.L.), . Phone: +61 8 82017958. Fax: +61 8 8201290 (C.L.R)
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20
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He S, Joseph N, Mirzamani M, Pye SJ, Al-anataki AHM, Whitten AE, Chen Y, Kumari H, Raston CL. Vortex fluidic mediated encapsulation of functional fish oil featuring in situ probed small angle neutron scattering. NPJ Sci Food 2020; 4:12. [PMID: 32964127 PMCID: PMC7481235 DOI: 10.1038/s41538-020-00072-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Major challenges for optimizing the benefits of fish oil on human health are improved bioavailability while overcoming the strong odor and avoiding significant oxidation of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The scalable continuous flow thin film vortex fluidic device (VFD) improves the Tween 20 encapsulation of fish oil relative to conventional homogenization processing, with the fish oil particles significantly smaller and the content of the valuable omega-3 fatty acids higher. In addition, after 14 days storage the remaining omega-3 fatty acids content was higher, from ca 31.0% for raw fish oil to ca 62.0% of freeze-dried encapsulated fish oil. The VFD mediated encapsulated fish oil was used to enrich the omega-3 fatty acid content of apple juice, as a model water-based food product, without changing its sensory values. The versatility of the VFD was further demonstrated in forming homogenous suspensions of fish oil containing water-insoluble bioactive molecules, curcumin and quercetin. We have also captured, for the first time, real-time structural changes in nanoencapsulation by installing a VFD with in in situ small angle neutron scattering. Real-time measurements afford valuable insights about self-assembly in solution.
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21
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Spano MB, Tran BH, Majumdar S, Weiss GA. 3D-Printed Labware for High-Throughput Immobilization of Enzymes. J Org Chem 2020; 85:8480-8488. [PMID: 32502347 PMCID: PMC9096805 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.0c00789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
In continuous flow biocatalysis, chemical transformations can occur under milder, greener, more scalable, and safer conditions than conventional organic synthesis. However, the method typically involves extensive screening to optimize each enzyme's immobilization on its solid support material. The task of weighing solids for large numbers of experiments poses a bottleneck for screening enzyme immobilization conditions. For example, screening conditions often require multiple replicates exploring different support chemistries, buffer compositions, and temperatures. Thus, we report 3D-printed labware designed to measure and handle solids in multichannel format and expedite screening of enzyme immobilization conditions. To demonstrate the generality of these advances, alkaline phosphatase, glucose dehydrogenase, and laccase were screened for immobilization efficiency on seven resins. The results illustrate the requirements for optimization of each enzyme's loading and resin choice for optimal catalytic performance. Here, 3D-printed labware can decrease the requirements for an experimentalist's time by >95%. The approach to rapid optimization of enzyme immobilization is applicable to any enzyme and many solid support resins. Furthermore, the reported devices deliver precise and accurate aliquots of essentially any granular solid material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B. Spano
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-2025, United States of America
| | - Brandan H. Tran
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-2025, United States of America
| | - Sudipta Majumdar
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-2025, United States of America
| | - Gregory A. Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-2025, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-3900, United States of America
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697-3958, United States of America
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Morodo
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis MolSys Research Unit University of Liège B‐4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Pauline Bianchi
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis MolSys Research Unit University of Liège B‐4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Jean‐Christophe M. Monbaliu
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis MolSys Research Unit University of Liège B‐4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
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23
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Burgahn T, Pietrek P, Dittmeyer R, Rabe KS, Niemeyer CM. Evaluation of a Microreactor for Flow Biocatalysis by Combined Theory and Experiment. ChemCatChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202000145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Burgahn
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Philip Pietrek
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Roland Dittmeyer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Kersten S. Rabe
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Christof M. Niemeyer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
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24
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Romero-Fernández M, Paradisi F. Protein immobilization technology for flow biocatalysis. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2019; 55:1-8. [PMID: 31865258 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Enzymatic immobilization has been at the forefront of applied biocatalysis as it enables convenient isolation and reuse of the catalyst if the target reaction is conducted in batch, and it has opened up significant opportunities to conduct biocatalysis in continuous mode. Over the last few years, an array of techniques to immobilize enzymes have been developed, spanning from covalent multipoint attachment to noncovalent electrostatic strategies to rational architecture to suitably orient the enzyme(s). In addition, new materials have been adapted to support biological catalysts. Here, we discuss the advances of the last two years in enzyme immobilization for continuous flow applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francesca Paradisi
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD, Nottingham, UK; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland.
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25
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Peschke T, Bitterwolf P, Rabe KS, Niemeyer CM. Self‐Immobilizing Oxidoreductases for Flow Biocatalysis in Miniaturized Packed‐Bed Reactors. Chem Eng Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.201900073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Theo Peschke
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Patrick Bitterwolf
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Kersten S. Rabe
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Christof M. Niemeyer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
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26
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He S, Joseph N, Luo X, Raston CL. Vortex fluidic mediated food processing. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216816. [PMID: 31145727 PMCID: PMC6542520 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The high heat and mass transfer, and controlled mechanoenergy, in angled vortex fluidics has been applied in chemical and material sciences and allied fields, but its utility in food processing remains largely unexplored. Herein we report three models of food processing incorporating such vortex fluidics, including enzymatic hydrolysis, raw milk pasteurization and encapsulation. The processing times of enzymatic hydrolysis was reduced from about 2–3 hours to 20 minutes, with the processing time of raw milk pasteurization reduced from 30 to 10 minutes, and an encapsulated particle size reduced approximately 10-fold, from micro meters to hundreds of nanometers. These findings highlight exciting possibilities, in exploiting the value of vortex fluidic mediated processing in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan He
- Department of Food Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Flinders Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
- * E-mail: (CLR); (SH)
| | - Nikita Joseph
- Flinders Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Xuan Luo
- Flinders Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Colin L. Raston
- Flinders Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
- * E-mail: (CLR); (SH)
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27
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Robertson JC, Coote ML, Bissember AC. Synthetic applications of light, electricity, mechanical force and flow. Nat Rev Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1038/s41570-019-0094-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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28
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Gómez-Arribas LN, Urraca JL, Benito-Peña E, Moreno-Bondi MC. Tag-Specific Affinity Purification of Recombinant Proteins by Using Molecularly Imprinted Polymers. Anal Chem 2019; 91:4100-4106. [PMID: 30786715 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b05731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Epitope tagging is widely used to fuse a known epitope to proteins for which no affinity receptor is available by using recombinant DNA technology. One example is FLAG epitope (DYKDDDDK), which provides better purity and recoveries than the favorite poly histidine tag. However, purification requires using anti-FLAG antibody resins, the high cost and nonreusability of which restrict widespread use. One cost-effective solution is provided by the use of bioinspired anti-FLAG molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). This work describes the development of MIPs, based on the epitope approach, synthesized from the tetrapeptide DYKD as template that affords purification of FLAG-derived recombinant proteins. Polymer was optimized by using a combinatorial approach to select the functional monomer(s) and cross-linker(s), resulting in the best specific affinity toward FLAG and the peptide DYKD. The imprinted resin obtained was used to purify mCherry proteins tagged with either FLAG or DYKD epitopes from crude cell lysates. Both mCherry variants were highly efficiently purified ( R ≥ 95%, RSD ≤ 15%, n = 3) and impurities were removed. Unlike existing antibody-based resins, the proposed tag-imprinting strategy provides a general method for meeting the growing demand for efficient, inexpensive, and versatile materials for tagged proteins purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia N Gómez-Arribas
- Chemical Optosensors and Applied Photochemistry Group (GSOLFA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry , Complutense University of Madrid , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Javier L Urraca
- Chemical Optosensors and Applied Photochemistry Group (GSOLFA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry , Complutense University of Madrid , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Elena Benito-Peña
- Chemical Optosensors and Applied Photochemistry Group (GSOLFA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry , Complutense University of Madrid , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - María C Moreno-Bondi
- Chemical Optosensors and Applied Photochemistry Group (GSOLFA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry , Complutense University of Madrid , 28040 Madrid , Spain
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29
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Abstract
Maximizing space–time yields (STY) of biocatalytic flow processes is essential for the establishment of a circular biobased economy. We present a comparative study in which different biocatalytic flow reactor concepts were tested with the same enzyme, the (R)-selective alcohol dehydrogenase from Lactobacillus brevis (LbADH), that was used for stereoselective reduction of 5-nitrononane-2,8-dione. The LbADH contained a genetically encoded streptavidin (STV)-binding peptide to enable self-immobilization on STV-coated surfaces. The purified enzyme was immobilized by physisorption or chemisorption as monolayers on the flow channel walls, on magnetic microbeads in a packed-bed format, or as self-assembled all-enzyme hydrogels. Moreover, a multilayer biofilm with cytosolic-expressed LbADH served as a whole-cell biocatalyst. To enable cross-platform comparison, STY values were determined for the various reactor modules. While mono- and multilayer coatings of the reactor surface led to STY < 10, higher productivity was achieved with packed-bed reactors (STY ≈ 100) and the densely packed hydrogels (STY > 450). The latter modules could be operated for prolonged times (>6 days). Given that our approach should be transferable to other enzymes, we anticipate that compartmentalized microfluidic reaction modules equipped with self-immobilizing biocatalysts would be of great utility for numerous biocatalytic and even chemo-enzymatic cascade reactions under continuous flow conditions.
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In-flow protein immobilization monitored by magnetic resonance imaging. N Biotechnol 2018; 47:25-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Peschke T, Bitterwolf P, Gallus S, Hu Y, Oelschlaeger C, Willenbacher N, Rabe KS, Niemeyer CM. Self‐Assembling All‐Enzyme Hydrogels for Flow Biocatalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201810331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Theo Peschke
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Patrick Bitterwolf
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Sabrina Gallus
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Yong Hu
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Claude Oelschlaeger
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics Gotthard-Franz-Strasse 3 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Norbert Willenbacher
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics Gotthard-Franz-Strasse 3 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Kersten S. Rabe
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Christof M. Niemeyer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
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Peschke T, Bitterwolf P, Gallus S, Hu Y, Oelschlaeger C, Willenbacher N, Rabe KS, Niemeyer CM. Self-Assembling All-Enzyme Hydrogels for Flow Biocatalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:17028-17032. [PMID: 30380178 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201810331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Continuous flow biocatalysis is an emerging field of industrial biotechnology that uses enzymes immobilized in flow channels for the production of value-added chemicals. We describe the construction of self-assembling all-enzyme hydrogels that are comprised of two tetrameric enzymes. The stereoselective dehydrogenase LbADH and the cofactor-regenerating glucose 1-dehydrogenase GDH were genetically fused with a SpyTag or SpyCatcher domain, respectively, to generate two complementary homo-tetrameric building blocks that polymerize under physiological conditions into porous hydrogels. Mounted in microfluidic reactors, the gels show excellent stereoselectivity with near quantitative conversion in the reduction of prochiral ketones along with high robustness under process and storage conditions. The gels function as compartment that retains intermediates thus enabling high total turnover numbers of the expensive cofactor NADP(H).
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Affiliation(s)
- Theo Peschke
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Patrick Bitterwolf
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Sabrina Gallus
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Yong Hu
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Claude Oelschlaeger
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Gotthard-Franz-Strasse 3, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Norbert Willenbacher
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Gotthard-Franz-Strasse 3, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Kersten S Rabe
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christof M Niemeyer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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Dawood AWH, Bassut J, de Souza ROMA, Bornscheuer UT. Combination of the Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling Reaction with Engineered Transaminases. Chemistry 2018; 24:16009-16013. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201804366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ayad W. H. Dawood
- Dept. of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis; Institute of Biochemistry, Greifswald University; Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4 17487 Greifswald Germany
| | - Jonathan Bassut
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group; Institute of Chemistry; Federal University of; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Rodrigo O. M. A. de Souza
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group; Institute of Chemistry; Federal University of; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Uwe T. Bornscheuer
- Dept. of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis; Institute of Biochemistry, Greifswald University; Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4 17487 Greifswald Germany
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Abstract
The continuous flow synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients, value-added chemicals, and materials has grown tremendously over the past ten years. This revolution in chemical manufacturing has resulted from innovations in both new methodology and technology. This field, however, has been predominantly focused on synthetic organic chemistry, and the use of biocatalysts in continuous flow systems is only now becoming popular. Although immobilized enzymes and whole cells in batch systems are common, their continuous flow counterparts have grown rapidly over the past two years. With continuous flow systems offering improved mixing, mass transfer, thermal control, pressurized processing, decreased variation, automation, process analytical technology, and in-line purification, the combination of biocatalysis and flow chemistry opens powerful new process windows. This Review explores continuous flow biocatalysts with emphasis on new technology, enzymes, whole cells, co-factor recycling, and immobilization methods for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, value-added chemicals, and materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Britton
- Departments of Chemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-2025, USA.
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Yuyama KT, Fortkamp D, Abraham WR. Eremophilane-type sesquiterpenes from fungi and their medicinal potential. Biol Chem 2017; 399:13-28. [PMID: 28822220 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2017-0171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Eremophilanes are sesquiterpenes with a rearranged carbon skeleton formed both by plants and fungi, however, almost no plant eremophilanes are found in fungi. These eremophilanes possess mainly phytotoxic, antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory properties and in this review fungal eremophilanes with bioactivities of potential medicinal applications are reviewed and discussed. A special focus is set on natural products bearing highly functionalized fatty acids at C-1 or C-3 position of the eremophilane backbone. Many of these fatty acids seem to contribute to the bioactivity of the metabolites enhancing the activity of the sesquiterpene moieties. Several approaches for optimization of these natural products for clinical needs and testing of the resulting derivatives are presented and discussed. The combination of identification of bioactive natural products with their subsequent improvement using a variety of genetical or chemical tools and the pharmacokinetic assessment of the products is presented here as a promising approach to new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Tomoko Yuyama
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Diana Fortkamp
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Escola Superior de Agricultura 'Luiz de Queiroz' (ESALQ), Department of Exact Sciences, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Wolf-Rainer Abraham
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Peschke T, Skoupi M, Burgahn T, Gallus S, Ahmed I, Rabe KS, Niemeyer CM. Self-Immobilizing Fusion Enzymes for Compartmentalized Biocatalysis. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b02230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Theo Peschke
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Marc Skoupi
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Teresa Burgahn
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Sabrina Gallus
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Ishtiaq Ahmed
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Kersten S. Rabe
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christof M. Niemeyer
- Institute for Biological Interfaces (IBG 1), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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Flow Bioreactors as Complementary Tools for Biocatalytic Process Intensification. Trends Biotechnol 2017; 36:73-88. [PMID: 29054312 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Biocatalysis has widened its scope and relevance since new molecular tools, including improved expression systems for proteins, protein and metabolic engineering, and rational techniques for immobilization, have become available. However, applications are still sometimes hampered by low productivity and difficulties in scaling up. A practical and reasonable step to improve the performances of biocatalysts (including both enzymes and whole-cell systems) is to use them in flow reactors. This review describes the state of the art on the design and use of biocatalysis in flow reactors. The encouraging successes of this enabling technology are critically discussed, highlighting new opportunities, problems to be solved and technological advances.
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Britton J, Stubbs KA, Weiss GA, Raston CL. Vortex Fluidic Chemical Transformations. Chemistry 2017; 23:13270-13278. [PMID: 28597512 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201700888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Driving chemical transformations in dynamic thin films represents a rapidly thriving and diversifying research area. Dynamic thin films provide a number of benefits including large surface areas, high shearing rates, rapid heat and mass transfer, micromixing and fluidic pressure waves. Combinations of these effects provide an avant-garde style of conducting chemical reactions with surprising and unusual outcomes. The vortex fluidic device (VFD) has proved its capabilities in accelerating and increasing the efficiencies of numerous organic, materials and biochemical reactions. This Minireview surveys transformations that have benefited from VFD-mediated processing, and identifies concepts driving the effectiveness of vortex-based dynamic thin films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Britton
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-2025, USA.,Centre for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Keith A Stubbs
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Gregory A Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-2025, USA
| | - Colin L Raston
- Centre for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
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