1
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Shcherbinin VA, Nasibullina ER, Mendogralo EY, Uchuskin MG. Natural epoxyquinoids: isolation, biological activity and synthesis. An update. Org Biomol Chem 2023; 21:8215-8243. [PMID: 37812083 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01141k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Epoxyquinoids are of continuing interest due to their wide natural distribution and diverse biological activities, including, but not limited to, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, enzyme inhibitory, and others. The last review on their total synthesis was published in 2017. Since then, almost 100 articles have been published on their isolation from nature and their biological profile. In addition, the review specifically considers synthesis, including total and enantioselective, as well as the development of shorter approaches for the construction of epoxyquinoids with complex chemical architecture. Thus, this review focuses on progress in this area in order to stimulate further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaly A Shcherbinin
- N.D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Pr. 47, 119334 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Ekaterina R Nasibullina
- Department of Chemistry, Perm State University, Bukireva St. 15, 614990 Perm, Russian Federation.
| | - Elena Y Mendogralo
- Department of Chemistry, Perm State University, Bukireva St. 15, 614990 Perm, Russian Federation.
| | - Maxim G Uchuskin
- Department of Chemistry, Perm State University, Bukireva St. 15, 614990 Perm, Russian Federation.
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2
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Ando Y, Ogawa D, Ohmori K, Suzuki K. Enantioselective Total Syntheses of Preussomerins: Control of Spiroacetal Stereogenicity by Photochemical Reaction of a Naphthoquinone through 1,6-Hydrogen Atom Transfer. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202213682. [PMID: 36446739 PMCID: PMC10107447 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202213682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
We report the enantioselective total syntheses of preussomerins EG1 , EG2 , and EG3 . The key transformation is a stereospecific photochemical reaction involving 1,6-hydrogen atom transfer to achieve retentive replacement of a C-H with a C-O bond, enabling otherwise-difficult control of the spiroacetal stereogenic center.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Ando
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Daichi Ogawa
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Ken Ohmori
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Keisuke Suzuki
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
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3
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Sasaki M, Seida M, Umehara A. Convergent and Scalable Synthesis of the ABCDE-Ring Fragment of Caribbean Ciguatoxin C-CTX-1. J Org Chem 2023; 88:403-418. [PMID: 36537759 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c02414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Convergent and scalable synthesis of the ABCDE-ring fragment of Caribbean ciguatoxin C-CTX-1, the major causative toxin for ciguatera poisoning in the Caribbean Sea and the Northeast Atlantic areas, is described in detail. The key features of the synthesis include an iterative use of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO)/PhI(OAc)2-mediated oxidative lactonization and Suzuki-Miyaura coupling en route to the DE-ring system and a convergent fragment coupling to form the ABCDE-ring skeleton via the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Sasaki
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Miku Seida
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Atsushi Umehara
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
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4
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Xu L, Ma H, An X, Li Y, Zhang Q, Liu X, Wang M. Total synthesis, structure revision and cytotoxic activity of Sch 53825 and its derivatives. RSC Adv 2022; 12:17629-17636. [PMID: 35765427 PMCID: PMC9194939 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra02898k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The first total synthesis of Sch 53825 (14) was achieved in 12 steps from 5-hydroxy-1-tetralone in 16% overall yield through N-benzyl cinchoninium chloride-catalyzed asymmetric epoxidation and a Mitsunobu reaction as the key steps. On this basis, the synthesis of palmarumycin B6 was improved using the same raw material with 6 steps and 32% overall yield. Also, three new analogues with two chlorine atoms were synthesized. Their structures were characterized by 1H, 13C NMR, HR-ESI-MS and X-ray diffraction data. The structure of natural Sch 53825 was revised as an epimer of compound 1 with the anti-hydroxy epoxide at C-4. Their cytotoxic activities against several tumor cell lines (HCT116, U251, BGC823, Huh-7 and PC9) showed that compound 11 exhibited excellent cytotoxicity against above mentioned cancer cell lines with IC50 < 0.5 μM. The first total synthesis of Sch 53825 (14) was achieved in 12 steps from 5-hydroxy-1-tetralone in 16% overall yield through N-benzyl cinchoninium chloride-catalyzed asymmetric epoxidation and a Mitsunobu reaction as the key steps.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Leichuan Xu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Haoyun Ma
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Xinkun An
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Yihao Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Xinlei Liu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
| | - Mingan Wang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University Beijing 100193 People's Republic of China
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5
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Liu X, Xu L, An X, Jiang J, Wang M. Synthesis and Larvicidal Activity of Palmarumycin B 6 Analogues. CHINESE J ORG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.6023/cjoc202109018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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6
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Koshino S, Taniguchi T, Monde K, Kwon E, Hayashi Y. Enantiodivergent One-Pot Synthesis of Axially Chiral Biaryls Using Organocatalyst-Mediated Enantioselective Domino Reaction and Central-to-Axial Chirality Conversion. Chemistry 2021; 27:15786-15794. [PMID: 34524720 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202102797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Enantiodivergent one-pot synthesis of biaryls was developed using a catalytic amount of a single chiral source. A domino organocatalyst-mediated enantioselective Michael reaction and aldol condensation provided centrally chiral dihydronaphthalenes with excellent enantioselectivity, from which an enantiodivergent chirality conversion from central-to-axial chirality was achieved. Both enantiomers of biaryls were obtained with excellent enantioselectivity. All transformations can be conducted in a single reaction vessel. A plausible reaction mechanism for the enantiodivergence is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seitaro Koshino
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Tohru Taniguchi
- Frontier Research Center of Advanced Material and Life Science, Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
| | - Kenji Monde
- Frontier Research Center of Advanced Material and Life Science, Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
| | - Eunsang Kwon
- Research and Analytical Center for Giant Molecules, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yujiro Hayashi
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
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7
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Majhi S. Applications of Norrish type I and II reactions in the total synthesis of natural products: a review. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:1357-1378. [PMID: 34537894 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00100-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Natural products and their analogue have played a key role in the drug discovery and development process. In the laboratory, the total synthesis of secondary metabolites is very useful in ascertaining the hypothetical complex structure of molecules of natural origin. Total synthesis of natural products using Norrish type I and II reactions as a crucial step has been explored in this overview. Norrish reactions are important photo-induced transformations of carbonyl compounds in organic synthetic chemistry and are connected in numerous industrially and biologically relevant procedures and the processing of carbonyl compounds in the atmosphere. The present review tries to focus on the brilliant applications of Norrish type I and II photochemical reactions as a key step in the total synthesis of natural products and highlights on natural sources, structures, and biological activities of the promising natural products for the first time elegantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasadhar Majhi
- Department of Chemistry (UG and PG Department), Triveni Devi Bhalotia College, Kazi Nazrul University, Raniganj, 713347, West Bengal, India.
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8
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Shu X, Chen CC, Yu T, Yang J, Hu X. Enantioselective Total Synthesis of (-)-Spiroxins A, C, and D. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:18514-18518. [PMID: 34138512 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202105921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Spiroxins A, C, and D are metabolites that have been identified in the marine fungal strain LL-37H248. Their unique polycyclic structures and intriguing biological activities make them attractive targets for the synthetic community. Based on a scalable enantioselective epoxidation of 5-substituted naphthoquinone, an oxidation/spiroketalization cascade, ortho-selective chlorination of the phenol unit, and oxime-ester-directed acetoxylation, an enantioselective total synthesis of (-)-spiroxins A and C and the first total synthesis of (-)-spiroxin D have been achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Shu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
| | - Chong-Chong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
| | - Tao Yu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
| | - Jiayi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
| | - Xiangdong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
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9
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Shu X, Chen C, Yu T, Yang J, Hu X. Enantioselective Total Synthesis of (−)‐Spiroxins A, C, and D. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202105921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Shu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education College of Chemistry & Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an 710127 China
| | - Chong‐Chong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education College of Chemistry & Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an 710127 China
| | - Tao Yu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education College of Chemistry & Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an 710127 China
| | - Jiayi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education College of Chemistry & Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an 710127 China
| | - Xiangdong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education College of Chemistry & Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an 710127 China
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10
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Ando Y, Matsumoto T, Suzuki K. Photoredox Reaction of Naphthoquinone
C
‐Glycoside Revisited: Insight into Stereochemical Aspect. Helv Chim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.202100008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Ando
- Department of Chemistry Tokyo Institute of Technology 2-12-1 O-Okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
| | - Takashi Matsumoto
- Department of Chemistry Tokyo Institute of Technology 2-12-1 O-Okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
| | - Keisuke Suzuki
- Department of Chemistry Tokyo Institute of Technology 2-12-1 O-Okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
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11
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Wang C, Lu H, Lan J, Zaman KHA, Cao S. A Review: Halogenated Compounds from Marine Fungi. Molecules 2021; 26:458. [PMID: 33467200 PMCID: PMC7830638 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26020458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine fungi produce many halogenated metabolites with a variety of structures, from acyclic entities with a simple linear chain to multifaceted polycyclic molecules. Over the past few decades, their pharmaceutical and medical application have been explored and still the door is kept open due to the need of new drugs from relatively underexplored sources. Biological properties of halogenated compounds such as anticancer, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antifouling, and insecticidal activity have been investigated. This review describes the chemical structures and biological activities of 217 halogenated compounds derived mainly from Penicillium and Aspergillus marine fungal strains reported from 1994 to 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, Guangxi Collaborative Innovation Center for Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University for Nationalities, Nanning 530006, China; (H.L.); (J.L.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawai’i, Hilo, HI 96720, USA;
| | - Huanyun Lu
- Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, Guangxi Collaborative Innovation Center for Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University for Nationalities, Nanning 530006, China; (H.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Jianzhou Lan
- Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, Guangxi Collaborative Innovation Center for Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University for Nationalities, Nanning 530006, China; (H.L.); (J.L.)
| | - KH Ahammad Zaman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawai’i, Hilo, HI 96720, USA;
| | - Shugeng Cao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawai’i, Hilo, HI 96720, USA;
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12
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Carroll AR, Copp BR, Davis RA, Keyzers RA, Prinsep MR. Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 38:362-413. [PMID: 33570537 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00089b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2019 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 719 citations (701 for the period January to December 2019) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1490 in 440 papers for 2019), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Pertinent reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that led to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included. Methods used to study marine fungi and their chemical diversity have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Carroll
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. and Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent R Copp
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia and School of Enivironment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
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13
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Rodríguez‐López J, Brovetto M, Martín VS, Martín T. Enantiodivergent Cyclization by Inversion of the Reactivity in Ambiphilic Molecules. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202006650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julio Rodríguez‐López
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González Universidad de La Laguna Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
| | - Margarita Brovetto
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González Universidad de La Laguna Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
| | - Víctor S. Martín
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González Universidad de La Laguna Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
- Departamento de Química Orgánica Universidad de La Laguna Francisco Sánchez s/n. Facultad de Farmacia 38200 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
| | - Tomás Martín
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González Universidad de La Laguna Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
- Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología CSIC Francisco Sánchez 3 38206 La Laguna Tenerife Spain
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14
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Rodríguez-López J, Brovetto M, Martín VS, Martín T. Enantiodivergent Cyclization by Inversion of the Reactivity in Ambiphilic Molecules. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:17077-17083. [PMID: 32573884 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202006650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Inverting the reactivity of the functional groups in ambiphilic molecules provides a new synthetic strategy to perform late-stage enantiodivergence. Both enantiomers of the final compound can be obtained from a common chiral precursor. As a proof of concept, the synthesis of substituted five- and six-membered oxacycles is described. The key step is the cyclization of an ambiphilic linear precursor bearing a propargylic alcohol and an epoxide linked through an alkyl chain. Through a slight modification of these linear precursors and employing different reaction conditions, these functional groups can inverse their chemical reactivity, producing one enantiomer or another of the final product. This enantiodivergent cyclization involves three stereogenic centers that can undergo fully controlled retention or inversion of their configuration depending on the cyclization pathway that is activated. The cyclization provides late-stage enantiodivergence, enabling the synthesis of either enantiomers of the oxacycles from a common chiral substrate with total transfer of the enantiomeric purity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Rodríguez-López
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, Francisco Sánchez 2, 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Margarita Brovetto
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, Francisco Sánchez 2, 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Víctor S Martín
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, Francisco Sánchez 2, 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain.,Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de La Laguna, Francisco Sánchez s/n. Facultad de Farmacia, 38200, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Tomás Martín
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, Francisco Sánchez 2, 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain.,Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, CSIC, Francisco Sánchez 3, 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
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