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Silva IDA, Bartalucci E, Bolm C, Wiegand T. Opportunities and Challenges in Applying Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy in Organic Mechanochemistry. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2304092. [PMID: 37407000 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202304092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
In recent years it is shown that mechanochemical strategies can be beneficial in directed conversions of organic compounds. Finding new reactions proved difficult, and due to the lack of mechanistic understanding of mechanochemical reaction events, respective efforts have mostly remained empirical. Spectroscopic techniques are crucial in shedding light on these questions. In this overview, the opportunities and challenges of solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the field of organic mechanochemistry are discussed. After a brief discussion of the basics of high-resolution solid-state NMR under magic-angle spinning (MAS) conditions, seven opportunities for solid-state NMR in the field of organic mechanochemistry are presented, ranging from ex situ approaches to structurally elucidated reaction products obtained by milling to the potential and limitations of in situ solid-state NMR approaches. Particular strengths of solid-state NMR, for instance in differentiating polymorphs, in NMR-crystallographic structure-determination protocols, or in detecting weak noncovalent interactions in molecular-recognition events employing proton-detected solid-state NMR experiments at fast MAS frequencies, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ettore Bartalucci
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstr. 34-36, 45470, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 2, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas Wiegand
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstr. 34-36, 45470, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 2, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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2
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Hao X, Feng D, Chen H, Huang P, Guo F. Mechanochemical Nickel-Catalyzed Carbon-Sulfur Bond Formation between Aryl Iodides and Aromatic Sulfur Surrogates. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202302119. [PMID: 37556506 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202302119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
The formation of aromatic thioethers from C-S coupling is of great importance in synthetic chemistry. Traditional solution strategies through transition-metal catalysis generally require bulk solution, heat, and longer reaction time. Herein, a mechano-promoted sulfenylation of aryl iodides with nickel catalysis is described. The active aromatic sulfide agents are in-situ generated from aromatic thiol or disulfide and subsequently adapted in the nickel catalytic cycle, with a tolerance of broad substituted groups under optimized conditions. In addition to the gram-scale synthesis that reveals the application potential of the method, the radical trapping and competitive experiments are also conducted for the mechanistic study, thus providing a plausible mechanism rationally. Furthermore, the proposed methodology is certificated as being versatile and following the green principles with ideal calculated values of green chemistry metrics, and the comparison with other approaches for C-S bond formation is also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiujia Hao
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Daming Feng
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Hongguang Chen
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Peng Huang
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Judicial Authentication & Forensic Sciences Institute, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Fang Guo
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, 110036, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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3
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Reynes JF, Isoni V, García F. Tinkering with Mechanochemical Tools for Scale Up. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202300819. [PMID: 37114517 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202300819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Mechanochemistry provides an environmentally benign platform to develop more sustainable chemical processes by limiting raw materials, energy use, and waste generation while using physically smaller equipment. A continuously growing research community has steadily showcased examples of beneficial mechanochemistry applications at both the laboratory and the preparative scale. In contrast to solution-based chemistry, mechanochemical processes have not yet been standardized, and thus scaling up is still a nascent discipline. The purpose of this Minireview is to highlight similarities, differences and challenges of the various approaches that have been successfully applied for a range of chemical applications at various scales. We hope to provide a discussion starting point for those interested in further developing mechanochemical processes for commercial use and/or industrialisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier F Reynes
- Departamento de Química Orgánica e Inorgánica Facultad de Química, Universidad de Oviedo, Av. Julián Clavería, 8, 33006, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Valerio Isoni
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1, Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore
| | - Felipe García
- Departamento de Química Orgánica e Inorgánica Facultad de Química, Universidad de Oviedo, Av. Julián Clavería, 8, 33006, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
- School of Chemistry, Monash University Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
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4
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Hernández JG, Ardila-Fierro KJ, Gómez S, Stolar T, Rubčić M, Topić E, Hadad CZ, Restrepo A. The Role of Crystalline Intermediates in Mechanochemical Cyclorhodation Reactions Elucidated by in-Situ X-ray Powder Diffraction and Computation. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202301290. [PMID: 37347170 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202301290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of crystalline intermediates in mechanochemical reactions might be more widespread than previously assumed. For example, a recent study involving the acetate-assisted C-H activation of N-Heterocycles with [Cp*RhCl2 ]2 by ball milling revealed the formation of transient cocrystals between the reagents prior to the C-H activation step. However, such crystalline intermediates were only observed through stepwise intervallic ex-situ analysis, and their exact role in the C-H activation process remained unclear. In this study, we monitored the formation of discrete, stoichiometric cocrystals between benzo[h]quinoline and [Cp*RhCl2 ]2 by ball milling using in-situ synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction. This continuous analysis revealed an initial cocrystal that transformed into a second crystalline form. Computational studies showed that differences in noncovalent interactions made the [Cp*RhCl2 ]2 unit in the later-appearing cocrystal more reactive towards NaOAc. This demonstrated the advantage of cocrystal formation before the acetate-assisted metalation-deprotonation step, and how the net cooperative action of weak interactions between the reagents in mechanochemical experiments can lead to stable supramolecular assemblies, which can enhance substrate activation under ball-milling conditions. This could explain the superiority of some mechanochemical reactions, such as acetate-assisted C-H activation, compared to their solution-based counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- José G Hernández
- Grupo Ciencia de los Materiales, Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Karen J Ardila-Fierro
- Grupo Ciencia de los Materiales, Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Sara Gómez
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Classe di Scienze, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126, Pisa, Italy
| | - Tomislav Stolar
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Mirta Rubčić
- Faculty of Science Department of Chemistry, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Edi Topić
- Faculty of Science Department of Chemistry, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Cacier Z Hadad
- Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Albeiro Restrepo
- Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
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5
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Wang W, Peng Y. Mechanochemical organic synthesis in a rotary evaporator beyond conventional application: Proof-of-concept reactions. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2023.2188463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanqing Peng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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6
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Biswas A, Bhunia A, Mandal SK. Mechanochemical solid state single electron transfer from reduced organic hydrocarbon for catalytic aryl-halide bond activation. Chem Sci 2023; 14:2606-2615. [PMID: 36908958 PMCID: PMC9993847 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc06119h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Solid-state radical generation is an attractive but underutilized methodology in the catalytic strong bond activation process, such as the aryl-halide bond. Traditionally, such a process of strong bond activation relied upon the use of transition metal complexes or strongly reducing photocatalysts in organic solvents. The generation of the aryl radical from aryl halides in the absence of transition-metal or external stimuli, such as light or cathodic current, remains an elusive process. In this study, we describe a reduced organic hydrocarbon, which can act as a super reductant in the solid state to activate strong bonds by solid-state single electron transfer (SSSET) under the influence of mechanical energy leading to a catalytic strategy based on the mechano-SSSET or mechanoredox process. Here, we investigate the solid-state synthesis of the super electron donor phenalenyl anion in a ball mill and its application as an active catalyst in strong bond (aryl halide) activation. Aryl radicals generated from aryl halides by employing this strategy are competent for various carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions under solvent-free and transition metal-free conditions. We illustrate this approach for partially soluble or insoluble polyaromatic arenes in accomplishing solid-solid C-C cross-coupling catalysis, which is otherwise difficult to achieve by traditional methods using solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Biswas
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research-Kolkata Mohanpur-741246 India
| | - Anup Bhunia
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research-Kolkata Mohanpur-741246 India
| | - Swadhin K Mandal
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research-Kolkata Mohanpur-741246 India
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7
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Bartalucci E, Schumacher C, Hendrickx L, Puccetti F, d'Anciães Almeida Silva I, Dervişoğlu R, Puttreddy R, Bolm C, Wiegand T. Disentangling the Effect of Pressure and Mixing on a Mechanochemical Bromination Reaction by Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203466. [PMID: 36445819 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical forces, including compressive stresses, have a significant impact on chemical reactions. Besides the preparative opportunities, mechanochemical conditions benefit from the absence of any organic solvent, the possibility of a significant synthetic acceleration and unique reaction pathways. Together with an accurate characterization of ball-milling products, the development of a deeper mechanistic understanding of the occurring transformations at a molecular level is critical for fully grasping the potential of organic mechanosynthesis. We herein studied a bromination of a cyclic sulfoximine in a mixer mill and used solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for structural characterization of the reaction products. Magic-angle spinning (MAS) was applied for elucidating the product mixtures taken from the milling jar without introducing any further post-processing on the sample. Ex situ 13 C-detected NMR spectra of ball-milling products showed the formation of a crystalline solid phase with the regioselective bromination of the S-aryl group of the heterocycle in position 4. Completion is reached in less than 30 minutes as deduced from the NMR spectra. The bromination can also be achieved by magnetic stirring, but then, a longer reaction time is required. Mixing the solid educts in the NMR rotor allows to get in situ insights into the reaction and enables the detection of a reaction intermediate. The pressure alone induced in the rotor by MAS is not sufficient to lead to full conversion and the reaction occurs on slower time scales than in the ball mill, which is crucial for analysing mixtures taken from the milling jar by solid-state NMR. Our data suggest that on top of centrifugal forces, an efficient mixing of the starting materials is required for reaching a complete reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ettore Bartalucci
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstr. 34-36, 45470, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Christian Schumacher
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Leeroy Hendrickx
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 2, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Francesco Puccetti
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Rıza Dervişoğlu
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstr. 34-36, 45470, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Rakesh Puttreddy
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany.,University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Chemistry P. O. Box. 35, Survontie 9B, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas Wiegand
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstr. 34-36, 45470, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany.,Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 2, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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8
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Baier DM, Rensch T, Bergheim K, Pietryga V, Grätz S, Borchardt L. The Mechanochemical Fries Rearrangement: Manipulating Isomer Ratios in the Synthesis of p-Hydroxyacetophenone at Different Scales. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203931. [PMID: 36683470 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Herein, the first mechanochemical Fries rearrangement for the industrially important synthesis of para-hydroxyacetophenone, inside a ball mill and a twin-screw extruder, is presented. Our approach leads to a yield of 62 % in as little as 90 minutes while liquid-assisted grinding can shift the isomer ratio resulting in an excess of the desired para-product. The multigram scale-up by extrusion leads to 61 % yield in only three minutes while completely avoiding solvents. The extrusion temperature can even further be reduced by combining extrusion with a subsequent ageing step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Baier
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Tilo Rensch
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Konrad Bergheim
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Viktoria Pietryga
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sven Grätz
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Lars Borchardt
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
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9
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Reshuffle Bonds by Ball Milling: A Mechanochemical Protocol for Charge-Accelerated Aza-Claisen Rearrangements. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28020807. [PMID: 36677865 PMCID: PMC9860570 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28020807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This study presents the development of a mechanochemical protocol for a charge-accelerated aza-Claisen rearrangement. The protocol waives the use of commonly applied transition metals, ligands, or pyrophoric Lewis acids, e.g., AlMe3. Based on (heterocyclic) tertiary allylamines and acyl chlorides, the desired tertiary amides were prepared in yields ranging from 17% to 84%. Moreover, the same protocol was applied for a Belluš-Claisen-type rearrangement resulting in the synthesis of a 9-membered lactam without further optimization.
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10
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Abstract
Mechanochemical reactions are driven by the direct absorption of mechanical energy by a solid (often crystalline) material. Understanding how this energy is absorbed and ultimately causes a chemical transformation is essential for understanding the elementary stages of mechanochemical transformations. Using as a model system the energetic material LiN3 we here consider how vibrational energy flows through the crystal structure. By considering the compression response of the crystalline material we identify the partitioning of energy into an initial vibrational excitation. Subsequent energy flow is based on concepts of phonon-phonon scattering, which we calculate within a quasi-equilibrium model facilitated by phonon scattering data obtained from Density Functional Theory (DFT). Using this model we demonstrate how the moments (picoseconds) immediately following mechanical impact lead to significant thermal excitation of crystalline LiN3, sufficient to drive marked changes in its electronic structure and hence chemical reactivity. This work paves the way towards an ab initio approach to studying elementary processes in mechanochemical reactions involving crystalline solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam A L Michalchuk
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard Wilstaetter Str 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany.
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11
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Boldyreva E. Spiers Memorial Lecture: Mechanochemistry, tribochemistry, mechanical alloying - retrospect, achievements and challenges. Faraday Discuss 2023; 241:9-62. [PMID: 36519434 DOI: 10.1039/d2fd00149g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The paper presents a view on the achievements, challenges and prospects of mechanochemistry. The extensive reference list can serve as a good entry point to a plethora of mechanochemical literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Boldyreva
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS & Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation.
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12
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Xuan M, Schumacher C, Bolm C, Göstl R, Herrmann A. The Mechanochemical Synthesis and Activation of Carbon-Rich π-Conjugated Materials. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2105497. [PMID: 35048569 PMCID: PMC9259731 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202105497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Mechanochemistry uses mechanical force to break, form, and manipulate chemical bonds to achieve functional transformations and syntheses. Over the last years, many innovative applications of mechanochemistry have been developed. Specifically for the synthesis and activation of carbon-rich π-conjugated materials, mechanochemistry offers reaction pathways that either are inaccessible with other stimuli, such as light and heat, or improve reaction yields, energy consumption, and substrate scope. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent advances in this research field combining the viewpoints of polymer and trituration mechanochemistry. The highlighted mechanochemical transformations include π-conjugated materials as optical force probes, the force-induced release of small dye molecules, and the mechanochemical synthesis of polyacetylene, carbon allotropes, and other π-conjugated materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjun Xuan
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Christian Schumacher
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
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Michalchuk AAL, Emmerling F. Time-Resolved In Situ Monitoring of Mechanochemical Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202117270. [PMID: 35128778 PMCID: PMC9400867 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202117270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochemical transformations offer environmentally benign synthesis routes, whilst enhancing both the speed and selectivity of reactions. In this regard, mechanochemistry promises to transform the way in which chemistry is done in both academia and industry but is greatly hindered by a current lack of mechanistic understanding. The continued development and use of time-resolved in situ (TRIS) approaches to monitor mechanochemical reactions provides a new dimension to elucidate these fascinating transformations. We here discuss recent trends in method development that have pushed the boundaries of mechanochemical research. New features of mechanochemical reactions obtained by TRIS techniques are subsequently discussed, which sheds light on how different TRIS approaches have been used. Emphasis is placed on the strength of combining complementary techniques. Finally, we outline our views on the potential of TRIS methods in mechanochemical research, towards establishing a new, environmentally benign paradigm in the chemical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam A. L. Michalchuk
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and TestingRichard-Willstätter-Strasse1112489BerlinGermany
| | - Franziska Emmerling
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and TestingRichard-Willstätter-Strasse1112489BerlinGermany
- Department of ChemistryHumboldt-Universität zu BerlinBrook-Taylor-Strasse 212489BerlinGermany
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14
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Lukin S, Germann LS, Friščić T, Halasz I. Toward Mechanistic Understanding of Mechanochemical Reactions Using Real-Time In Situ Monitoring. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:1262-1277. [PMID: 35446551 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The past two decades have witnessed a rapid emergence of interest in mechanochemistry-chemical and materials reactivity achieved or sustained by the action of mechanical force-which has led to application of mechanochemistry to almost all areas of modern chemical and materials synthesis: from organic, inorganic, and organometallic chemistry to enzymatic reactions, formation of metal-organic frameworks, hybrid perovskites, and nanoparticle-based materials. The recent success of mechanochemistry by ball milling has also raised questions about the underlying mechanisms and has led to the realization that the rational development and effective harnessing of mechanochemical reactivity for cleaner and more efficient chemical manufacturing will critically depend on establishing a mechanistic understanding of these reactions. Despite their long history, the development of such a knowledge framework for mechanochemical reactions is still incomplete. This is in part due to the, until recently, unsurmountable challenge of directly observing transformations taking place in a rapidly oscillating or rotating milling vessel, with the sample being under the continuous impact of milling media. A transformative change in mechanistic studies of milling reactions was recently introduced through the first two methodologies for real-time in situ monitoring based on synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Introduced in 2013 and 2014, the two new techniques have inspired a period of tremendous method development, resulting also in new techniques for mechanistic mechanochemical studies that are based on temperature and/or pressure monitoring, extended X-ray fine structure (EXAFS), and, latest, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The new technologies available for real-time monitoring have now inspired the development of experimental strategies and advanced data analysis approaches for the identification and quantification of short-lived reaction intermediates, the development of new mechanistic models, as well as the emergence of more complex monitoring methodologies based on two or three simultaneous monitoring approaches. The use of these new opportunities has, in less than a decade, enabled the first real-time observations of mechanochemical reaction kinetics and the first studies of how the presence of additives, or other means of modifying the mechanochemical reaction, influence reaction rates and pathways. These studies have revealed multistep reaction mechanisms, enabled the identification of autocatalysis, as well as identified molecules and materials that have previously not been known or have even been considered not possible to synthesize through conventional approaches. Mechanistic studies through in situ powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and Raman spectroscopy have highlighted the formation of supramolecular complexes (for example, cocrystals) as critical intermediates in organic and metal-organic synthesis and have also been combined with isotope labeling strategies to provide a deeper insight into mechanochemical reaction mechanisms and atomic and molecular dynamics under milling conditions. This Account provides an overview of this exciting, rapidly evolving field by presenting the development and concepts behind the new methodologies for real-time in situ monitoring of mechanochemical reactions, outlining key advances in mechanistic understanding of mechanochemistry, and presenting selected studies important for pushing forward the boundaries of measurement techniques, data analysis, and mapping of reaction mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stipe Lukin
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Luzia S. Germann
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W. H3A 0B8 Montreal, Canada
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W. H3A 0B8 Montreal, Canada
| | - Ivan Halasz
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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15
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Michalchuk AAL, Emmerling F. Zeitaufgelöste In‐Situ‐Untersuchungen von mechanochemischen Reaktionen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202117270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam A. L. Michalchuk
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11 12489 Berlin Deutschland
| | - Franziska Emmerling
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11 12489 Berlin Deutschland
- Department of Chemistry Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Brook-Taylor-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Deutschland
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16
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Zhai F, Xin T, Geeson MB, Cummins CC. Sustainable Production of Reduced Phosphorus Compounds: Mechanochemical Hydride Phosphorylation Using Condensed Phosphates as a Route to Phosphite. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:332-339. [PMID: 35350608 PMCID: PMC8949633 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c01381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In pursuit of a more sustainable production of phosphorous acid (H3PO3), a versatile chemical with phosphorus in the +3 oxidation state, we herein report that condensed phosphates can be employed to phosphorylate hydride reagents under solvent-free mechanochemical conditions to furnish phosphite (HPO3 2-). Using potassium hydride as the hydride source, sodium trimetaphosphate (Na3P3O9), triphosphate (Na5P3O10), pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7), fluorophosphate (Na2PO3F), and polyphosphate ("(NaPO3) n ") engendered phosphite in optimized yields of 44, 58, 44, 84, and 55% based on total P content, respectively. Formation of overreduced products including hypophosphite (H2PO2 -) was identified as a competing process, and mechanistic investigations revealed that hydride attack on in-situ-generated phosphorylated phosphite species is a potent pathway for overreduction. The phosphite generated from our method was easily isolated in the form of barium phosphite, a useful intermediate for production of phosphorous acid. This method circumvents the need to pass through white phosphorus (P4) as a high-energy intermediate and mitigates involvement of environmentally hazardous chemicals. A bioproduced polyphosphate was found to be a viable starting material for the production of phosphite. These results demonstrate the possibility of accessing reduced phosphorus compounds in a more sustainable manner and, more importantly, a means to close the modern phosphorus cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhai
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Tiansi Xin
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Michael B. Geeson
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Christopher C. Cummins
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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17
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Zhang J, Zhang P, Ma Y, Szostak M. Mechanochemical Synthesis of Ketones via Chemoselective Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling of Acyl Chlorides. Org Lett 2022; 24:2338-2343. [PMID: 35297638 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c00519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The direct synthesis of ketones via acyl Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of widely available acyl chlorides is a central transformation in organic synthesis. Herein, we report the first mechanochemical solvent-free method for highly chemoselective synthesis of ketones from acyl chlorides and boronic acids. This acylation reaction is conducted in the solid state, in the absence of potentially harmful solvents, for a short reaction time and shows excellent selectivity for C(acyl)-Cl bond cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Chemical Additives for China National Light Industry, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Pei Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Chemical Additives for China National Light Industry, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Yangmin Ma
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Chemical Additives for China National Light Industry, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Michal Szostak
- Department of Chemistry, Rutgers University, 73 Warren Street, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
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18
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Puccetti F, Lukin S, Užarević K, Colacino E, Halasz I, Bolm C, Hernández JG. Mechanistic Insights on the Mechanosynthesis of Phenytoin, a WHO Essential Medicine. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202104409. [PMID: 35041251 PMCID: PMC9304275 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202104409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, mechanochemistry has enriched the toolbox of synthetic chemists, enabling faster and more sustainable access to new materials and existing products, including active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). However, molecular‐level understanding of most mechanochemical reactions remains limited, delaying the implementation of mechanochemistry in industrial applications. Herein, we have applied in situ monitoring by Raman spectroscopy to the mechanosynthesis of phenytoin, a World Health Organization (WHO) Essential Medicine, enabling the observation, isolation, and characterization of key molecular‐migration intermediates involved in the single‐step transformation of benzil, urea, and KOH into phenytoin. This work contributes to the elucidation of a reaction mechanism that has been subjected to a number of interpretations over time and paints a clear picture of how mechanosynthesis can be applied and optimized for the preparation of added‐value molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Puccetti
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stipe Lukin
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Krunoslav Užarević
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Ivan Halasz
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - José G Hernández
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
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19
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Abstract
Direct mechanocatalysis (DM) describes solvent-free catalytic reactions that are initiated by mechanical forces in mechanochemical reactors such as ball mills. The distinctive feature of DM is that the milling materials, e.g. the milling balls themselves are the catalyst of the reaction. In this article we follow the historical evolution of this novel concept and give a guide to this emerging, powerful synthesis tool. Within this perspective we seek to highlight the impact of the relevant milling parameters, the nature of the catalyst and potential additives, the scope of reactions that are currently accessible by this method, and the thus far raised hypotheses on the underlying mechanisms of direct mechanochemical transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhmi Hwang
- Professur für Anorganische Chemie I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Sven Grätz
- Professur für Anorganische Chemie I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Lars Borchardt
- Professur für Anorganische Chemie I, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
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20
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Cui X, Hao X, Guo F. Stepwise synthesis and catalysis in C-S cross-coupling of pyridine-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene nickel (II) complexes by mechanochemistry. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:4377-4385. [DOI: 10.1039/d1dt03651c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of three N-heterocyclic carbene complexes by stepwise grinding was described in this paper. The benzimidazolium salts ([H2L]Br2 and [H2L](PF6)2 ([H2L] =1,1’-di(2-picolyl)-3,3’-methylenedibenzoimidazolium) were initially prepared. Their reactions with Ni(OAc)2·4H2O...
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21
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Biliškov N. Infrared spectroscopic monitoring of solid-state processes. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:19073-19120. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cp01458k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We put a spotlight on IR spectroscopic investigations in materials science by providing a critical insight into the state of the art, covering both fundamental aspects, examples of its utilisation, and current challenges and perspectives focusing on the solid state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Biliškov
- Rudjer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, QC, H3A 0B8, Canada
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22
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Kaiser RP, Krake EF, Backer L, Urlaub J, Baumann W, Handler N, Buschmann H, Beweries T, Holzgrabe U, Bolm C. Ball milling - a new concept for predicting degradation profiles in active pharmaceutical ingredients. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:11956-11959. [PMID: 34704567 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc04716g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A method for forced oxidative mechanochemical degradation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) using clopidogrel hydrogensulfate as a model compound is presented. Considerable and selective formation of degradants occurs already after very short reaction times of less than 15 minutes and the nature of the products is strongly dependent on the used oxidant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhard P Kaiser
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Landoltweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Everaldo F Krake
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V., Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Laura Backer
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Jonas Urlaub
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Baumann
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V., Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Norbert Handler
- RD&C Research, Development & Consulting GmbH, Neuwaldegger Strasse 35/2/3, 1170 Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Buschmann
- RD&C Research, Development & Consulting GmbH, Neuwaldegger Strasse 35/2/3, 1170 Vienna, Austria
| | - Torsten Beweries
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V., Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Ulrike Holzgrabe
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Carsten Bolm
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Landoltweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
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23
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Changing the game of time resolved X-ray diffraction on the mechanochemistry playground by downsizing. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6134. [PMID: 34675198 PMCID: PMC8531352 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26264-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Time resolved in situ (TRIS) monitoring has revolutionised the study of mechanochemical transformations but has been limited by available data quality. Here we report how a combination of miniaturised grinding jars together with innovations in X-ray powder diffraction data collection and state-of-the-art analysis strategies transform the power of TRIS synchrotron mechanochemical experiments. Accurate phase compositions, comparable to those obtained by ex situ measurements, can be obtained with small sample loadings. Moreover, microstructural parameters (crystal size and microstrain) can be also determined with high confidence. This strategy applies to all chemistries, is readily implemented, and yields high-quality diffraction data even using a low energy synchrotron source. This offers a direct avenue towards the mechanochemical investigation of reactions comprising scarce, expensive, or toxic compounds. Our strategy is applied to model systems, including inorganic, metal-organic, and organic mechanosyntheses, resolves previously misinterpreted mechanisms in mechanochemical syntheses, and promises broad, new directions for mechanochemical research.
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24
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Nicholson WI, Barreteau F, Leitch JA, Payne R, Priestley I, Godineau E, Battilocchio C, Browne DL. Direct Amidation of Esters by Ball Milling**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202106412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William I. Nicholson
- School of Chemistry Cardiff University Park Place, Main Building Cardiff CF10 3AT UK
| | - Fabien Barreteau
- Syngenta Crop Protection AG Schaffauserstrasse 101 4332 Stein Switzerland
| | - Jamie A. Leitch
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry University College London (UCL) School of Pharmacy 29–39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Riley Payne
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry University College London (UCL) School of Pharmacy 29–39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Ian Priestley
- Syngenta Ltd. Huddersfield Manufacturing Centre Huddersfield HD2 1FF UK
| | - Edouard Godineau
- Syngenta Crop Protection AG Schaffauserstrasse 101 4332 Stein Switzerland
| | | | - Duncan L. Browne
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry University College London (UCL) School of Pharmacy 29–39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury London WC1N 1AX UK
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25
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Nicholson WI, Barreteau F, Leitch JA, Payne R, Priestley I, Godineau E, Battilocchio C, Browne DL. Direct Amidation of Esters by Ball Milling*. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:21868-21874. [PMID: 34357668 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202106412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The direct mechanochemical amidation of esters by ball milling is described. The operationally simple procedure requires an ester, an amine, and substoichiometric KOtBu and was used to prepare a large and diverse library of 78 amide structures with modest to excellent efficiency. Heteroaromatic and heterocyclic components are specifically shown to be amenable to this mechanochemical protocol. This direct synthesis platform has been applied to the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and agrochemicals as well as the gram-scale synthesis of an active pharmaceutical, all in the absence of a reaction solvent.
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Affiliation(s)
- William I Nicholson
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Main Building, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Fabien Barreteau
- Syngenta Crop Protection AG, Schaffauserstrasse 101, 4332, Stein, Switzerland
| | - Jamie A Leitch
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, University College London (UCL), School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Riley Payne
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, University College London (UCL), School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Ian Priestley
- Syngenta Ltd., Huddersfield Manufacturing Centre, Huddersfield, HD2 1FF, UK
| | - Edouard Godineau
- Syngenta Crop Protection AG, Schaffauserstrasse 101, 4332, Stein, Switzerland
| | | | - Duncan L Browne
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, University College London (UCL), School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, Bloomsbury, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
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26
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Virieux D, Delogu F, Porcheddu A, García F, Colacino E. Mechanochemical Rearrangements. J Org Chem 2021; 86:13885-13894. [PMID: 34259516 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c01323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Molecular rearrangements are a powerful tool for constructing complex structures in an atom- and step-economic manner, translating multistep transformations into an intrinsically more sustainable process. Mechanochemical molecular rearrangements become an even more appealing eco-friendly synthetic approach, especially for preparing active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and natural products. Still in their infancy, rearrangements promoted by mechanochemistry represent a promising approach for chemists to merge molecular diversity and green chemistry perspectives toward more selective and efficient syntheses with a reduced environmental footprint.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Virieux
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier 34296, France
| | - Francesco Delogu
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Chimica e dei Materiali, Universita degli Studi di Cagliari, Via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Andrea Porcheddu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, 09028 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Felipe García
- School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, 21 Nanyang Link, 63737 Singapore
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27
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Lukin S, Užarević K, Halasz I. Raman spectroscopy for real-time and in situ monitoring of mechanochemical milling reactions. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:3492-3521. [PMID: 34089023 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-021-00545-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Solid-state milling has emerged as an alternative, sustainable approach for preparing virtually all classes of compounds and materials. In situ reaction monitoring is essential to understanding the kinetics and mechanisms of these reactions, but it has proved difficult to use standard analytical techniques to analyze the contents of the closed, rapidly moving reaction chamber (jar). Monitoring by Raman spectroscopy is an attractive choice, because it allows uninterrupted data collection from the outside of a translucent milling jar. It complements the already established in situ monitoring based on powder X-ray diffraction, which has limited accessibility to the wider research community, because it requires a synchrotron X-ray source. The Raman spectroscopy monitoring setup used in this protocol consists of an affordable, small portable spectrometer, a laser source and a Raman probe. Translucent reaction jars, most commonly made from a plastic material, enable interaction of the laser beam with the solid sample residing inside the closed reaction jar and collection of Raman-scattered photons while the ball mill is in operation. Acquired Raman spectra are analyzed using commercial or open-source software for data analysis (e.g., MATLAB, Octave, Python, R). Plotting the Raman spectra versus time enables qualitative analysis of reaction paths. This is demonstrated for an example reaction: the formation in the solid state of a cocrystal between nicotinamide and salicylic acid. A more rigorous data analysis can be achieved using multivariate analysis.
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28
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Ardila-Fierro KJ, Hernández JG. Sustainability Assessment of Mechanochemistry by Using the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:2145-2162. [PMID: 33835716 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, mechanochemistry has been growing into a widely accepted alternative for chemical synthesis. In addition to their efficiency and practicality, mechanochemical reactions are also recognized for their sustainability. The association between mechanochemistry and Green Chemistry often originates from the solvent-free nature of most mechanochemical protocols, which can reduce waste production. However, mechanochemistry satisfies more than one of the Principles of Green Chemistry. In this Review we will present a series of examples that will clearly illustrate how mechanochemistry can significantly contribute to the fulfillment of Green Chemistry in a more holistic manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen J Ardila-Fierro
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - José G Hernández
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
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29
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O’Neill RT, Boulatov R. The many flavours of mechanochemistry and its plausible conceptual underpinnings. Nat Rev Chem 2021; 5:148-167. [PMID: 37117533 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-020-00249-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochemistry describes diverse phenomena in which mechanical load affects chemical reactivity. The fuzziness of this definition means that it includes processes as seemingly disparate as motor protein function, organic synthesis in a ball mill, reactions at a propagating crack, chemical actuation, and polymer fragmentation in fast solvent flows and in mastication. In chemistry, the rate of a reaction in a flask does not depend on how fast the flask moves in space. In mechanochemistry, the rate at which a material is deformed affects which and how many bonds break. In other words, in some manifestations of mechanochemistry, macroscopic motion powers otherwise endergonic reactions. In others, spontaneous chemical reactions drive mechanical motion. Neither requires thermal or electrostatic gradients. Distinct manifestations of mechanochemistry are conventionally treated as being conceptually independent, which slows the field in its transformation from being a collection of observations to a rigorous discipline. In this Review, we highlight observations suggesting that the unifying feature of mechanochemical phenomena may be the coupling between inertial motion at the microscale to macroscale and changes in chemical bonding enabled by transient build-up and relaxation of strains, from macroscopic to molecular. This dynamic coupling across multiple length scales and timescales also greatly complicates the conceptual understanding of mechanochemistry.
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30
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Yeboue Y, Jean M, Subra G, Martinez J, Lamaty F, Métro TX. Epimerization-Free C-Term Activation of Peptide Fragments by Ball Milling. Org Lett 2021; 23:631-635. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c03209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yves Yeboue
- IBMM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Marion Jean
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, Marseille, France
| | - Gilles Subra
- IBMM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean Martinez
- IBMM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
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31
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Burke AJ, Moutayakine A. Stereoselective benzilic acid rearrangements: new advances on an old story. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:2585-2590. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cc07905g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The benzilic acid rearrangement (BAR) is a powerful method introducing key structural elements in many targets. In this article we discuss important recent stereoselective BARs that include the first enantioselective catalytic example.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Burke
- LAQV-REQUIMTE
- University of Évora
- Institute for Research and Advanced Training (IIFA)
- Évora
- Portugal
| | - Amina Moutayakine
- Department of Chemistry
- School of Science and Technology
- University of Évora
- Évora
- Portugal
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32
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Pickhardt W, Grätz S, Borchardt L. Direct Mechanocatalysis: Using Milling Balls as Catalysts. Chemistry 2020; 26:12903-12911. [PMID: 32314837 PMCID: PMC7589287 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202001177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Direct mechanocatalysis describes catalytic reactions under the involvement of mechanical energy with the distinct feature of milling equipment itself being the catalyst. This novel type of catalysis features no solubility challenges of the catalysts nor the substrate and on top offering most facile way of separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilm Pickhardt
- Inorganic Chemistry IRuhr-University BochumUniversitätsstraße 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Sven Grätz
- Inorganic Chemistry IRuhr-University BochumUniversitätsstraße 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Lars Borchardt
- Inorganic Chemistry IRuhr-University BochumUniversitätsstraße 15044801BochumGermany
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33
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Jones AC, Nicholson WI, Smallman HR, Browne DL. A Robust Pd-Catalyzed C–S Cross-Coupling Process Enabled by Ball-Milling. Org Lett 2020; 22:7433-7438. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c02418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C. Jones
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K
| | - William I. Nicholson
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K
| | - Harry R. Smallman
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K
- School of Pharmacy, UCL, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1X 1AX, U.K
| | - Duncan L. Browne
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K
- School of Pharmacy, UCL, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1X 1AX, U.K
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34
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Schumacher C, Hernández JG, Bolm C. Electro-Mechanochemical Atom Transfer Radical Cyclizations using Piezoelectric BaTiO 3. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:16357-16360. [PMID: 32515540 PMCID: PMC7540587 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202003565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The formation and regeneration of active CuI species is a fundamental mechanistic step in copper-catalyzed atom transfer radical cyclizations (ATRC). Typically, the presence of the catalytically active CuI species in the reaction mixture is secured by using high CuI catalyst loadings or the addition of complementary reducing agents. In this study it is demonstrated how the piezoelectric properties of barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) can be harnessed by mechanical ball milling to induce electrical polarization in the strained piezomaterial. This strategy enables the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, leading to the reduction of a CuII precatalyst into the active CuI species in copper-catalyzed mechanochemical solvent-free ATRC reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schumacher
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 152074AachenGermany
| | - José G. Hernández
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 152074AachenGermany
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 152074AachenGermany
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