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Haldar S, Bhauriyal P, Ramuglia AR, Khan AH, De Kock S, Hazra A, Bon V, Pastoetter DL, Kirchhoff S, Shupletsov L, De A, Isaacs MA, Feng X, Walter M, Brunner E, Weidinger IM, Heine T, Schneemann A, Kaskel S. Sulfide-Bridged Covalent Quinoxaline Frameworks for Lithium-Organosulfide Batteries. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2210151. [PMID: 36719245 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202210151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The chelating ability of quinoxaline cores and the redox activity of organosulfide bridges in layered covalent organic frameworks (COFs) offer dual active sites for reversible lithium (Li)-storage. The designed COFs combining these properties feature disulfide and polysulfide-bridged networks showcasing an intriguing Li-storage mechanism, which can be considered as a lithium-organosulfide (Li-OrS) battery. The experimental-computational elucidation of three quinoxaline COFs containing systematically enhanced sulfur atoms in sulfide bridging demonstrates fast kinetics during Li interactions with the quinoxaline core. Meanwhile, bilateral covalent bonding of sulfide bridges to the quinoxaline core enables a redox-mediated reversible cleavage of the sulfursulfur bond and the formation of covalently anchored lithium-sulfide chains or clusters during Li-interactions, accompanied by a marked reduction of Li-polysulfide (Li-PS) dissolution into the electrolyte, a frequent drawback of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries. The electrochemical behavior of model compounds mimicking the sulfide linkages of the COFs and operando Raman studies on the framework structure unravels the reversibility of the profound Li-ion-organosulfide interactions. Thus, integrating redox-active organic-framework materials with covalently anchored sulfides enables a stable Li-OrS battery mechanism which shows benefits over a typical Li-S battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sattwick Haldar
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Preeti Bhauriyal
- Chair of Theoretical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anthony R Ramuglia
- Chair of Electrochemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Arafat H Khan
- Chair of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sunel De Kock
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Arpan Hazra
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Volodymyr Bon
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dominik L Pastoetter
- Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed) and Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kirchhoff
- Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology (IWS), Winterbergstraße 28, 01277, Dresden, Germany
| | - Leonid Shupletsov
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ankita De
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mark A Isaacs
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, WC1H 0AJ, UK
- HarwellXPS, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratories, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Xinliang Feng
- Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed) and Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Eike Brunner
- Chair of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Inez M Weidinger
- Chair of Electrochemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas Heine
- Chair of Theoretical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Andreas Schneemann
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Kaskel
- Chair of Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology (IWS), Winterbergstraße 28, 01277, Dresden, Germany
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Sang P, Chen Q, Wang DY, Guo W, Fu Y. Organosulfur Materials for Rechargeable Batteries: Structure, Mechanism, and Application. Chem Rev 2023; 123:1262-1326. [PMID: 36757873 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries have received significant attention over the last decades due to the wide application of portable electronics and increasing deployment of electric vehicles. In order to further enhance the performance of the batteries and overcome the capacity limitations of inorganic electrode materials, it is imperative to explore new cathode and functional materials for rechargeable lithium batteries. Organosulfur materials containing sulfur-sulfur bonds as a kind of promising organic electrode materials have the advantages of high capacities, abundant resources, tunable structures, and environmental benignity. In addition, organosulfur materials have been widely used in almost every aspect of rechargeable batteries because of their multiple functionalities. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on the development of organosulfur materials including the synthesis and application as cathode materials, electrolyte additives, electrolytes, binders, active materials in lithium redox flow batteries, and other metal battery systems. We also give an in-depth analysis of structure-property-performance relationship of organosulfur materials, and guidance for the future development of organosulfur materials for next generation rechargeable lithium batteries and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Sang
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiliang Chen
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan-Yang Wang
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Guo
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongzhu Fu
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, People's Republic of China
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Yan Y, Sitaula P, Odom SA, Vaid TP. High Energy Density, Asymmetric, Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries without a Supporting Electrolyte. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:49633-49640. [PMID: 36315441 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c10072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Energy density in nonaqueous redox flow batteries (RFBs) is often limited by the modest solubility of the redox-active organic molecules (ROMs). In addition, the lack of a separator that prevents ROMs from crossing between anolyte and catholyte solutions necessitates the use of 1:1 mixtures of two ROMs in both the anolyte and catholyte solutions in symmetric RFBs, further limiting concentrations. We show that permanently cationic oligomers of viologen, tris(dialkylamino)cyclopropenium, and phenothiazine molecules have high solubility in acetonitrile and cross over an anion exchange membrane at slow to undetectable rates, enabling the creation of asymmetric RFBs with low crossover. No added supporting electrolyte is necessary, with only the PF6- counteranions of the ROMs crossing the membrane during charge/discharge. An oligomeric viologen + oligomeric cyclopropenium RFB at 1.0 M (redox equivalents) has a voltage of 1.66 V and a theoretical energy density of 22.2 Wh/L, one of the highest reported for nonaqueous RFBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichao Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Paban Sitaula
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Susan A Odom
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Thomas P Vaid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
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Chen J, Gu S, Hao R, Liu K, Wang Z, Li Z, Yuan H, Guo H, Zhang K, Lu Z. Unraveling the Role of Aromatic Ring Size in Tuning the Electrochemical Performance of Small-Molecule Imide Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:44330-44337. [PMID: 36125517 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c11138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Organic electrode materials have the typical advantages of flexibility, low cost, abundant resources, and recyclability. However, it is challenging to simultaneously optimize the specific capacity, rate capability, and cycling stability. Radicals are inevitable intermediates that critically determine the redox activity and stability during the electrochemical reaction of organic electrodes. Herein, we select a series of aromatic imides, including pyromellitic diimide (PMDI), 1,4,5,8-naphthalenediimide (NDI), and 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylicdiimide (PTCDI), which contain different extending π-conjugated aromatic rings, to study the relationship between their electrochemical performance and the size of the aromatic ring. The results show that regulating the aromatic ring size of imide molecules could finely tune the energies of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), thus optimizing the redox potential. The rate performance of PMDI, NDI, and PTCDI increases with the aromatic ring size, which is consistent with the decrease in the LUMO-HOMO gap of these imide molecules. DFT calculations and experiments reveal that the redox of imide radicals dominates the charge/discharge processes. Also, extending the aromatic rings could more effectively disperse the spin electron density and improve the stability of imide radicals, contributing to the enhanced cycling stability of these imide electrodes. Hence, aromatic ring size regulation is a simple and novel approach to simultaneously enhance the capacity, rate capability, and cycling stability of organic electrodes for high-performance lithium-ion batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Shuai Gu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, P. R. China
| | - Rui Hao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Kun Liu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Zhiqiang Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Huimin Yuan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Hao Guo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Kaili Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, P. R. China
| | - Zhouguang Lu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Interfacial Science and Engineering of Materials, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Photonic-Thermal-Electrical Energy Materials and Devices, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, P. R. China
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Abstract
Redox flow batteries are a critical technology for large-scale energy storage, offering the promising characteristics of high scalability, design flexibility and decoupled energy and power. In recent years, they have attracted extensive research interest, with significant advances in relevant materials chemistry, performance metrics and characterization. The emerging concepts of hybrid battery design, redox-targeting strategy, photoelectrode integration and organic redox-active materials present new chemistries for cost-effective and sustainable energy storage systems. This Review summarizes the recent development of next-generation redox flow batteries, providing a critical overview of the emerging redox chemistries of active materials from inorganics to organics. We discuss electrochemical characterizations and critical performance assessment considering the intrinsic properties of the active materials and the mechanisms that lead to degradation of energy storage capacity. In particular, we highlight the importance of advanced spectroscopic analysis and computational studies in enabling understanding of relevant mechanisms. We also outline the technical requirements for rational design of innovative materials and electrolytes to stimulate more exciting research and present the prospect of this field from aspects of both fundamental science and practical applications.
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Guo W, Wang D, Chen Q, Fu Y. Advances of Organosulfur Materials for Rechargeable Metal Batteries. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2103989. [PMID: 34825523 PMCID: PMC8811802 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202103989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Battery materials have become a hotspot in the academic research. Organosulfur compounds are considered as a promising class of cathode materials for rechargeable metal batteries. They have attracted increasing attention in recent years after a long-term stagnancy since 1980s. Recent studies have focused on the understanding of redox mechanism of linear organosulfur molecules R-Sn -R with defined structures. In addition, some new organosulfur compounds are developed. The reversible sulfursulfur (SS) bond breakage/formation of organosulfur in batteries makes them applicable as functional materials in batteries. In this review, new organosulfur materials including molecules, polymers, and composites are introduced. In the following, organosulfur-inorganic hybrid materials are discussed, which have shown unique redox process and enhanced battery performance. In the third part, organosulfur additives are used in Li-S batteries, which can improve the formation of solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) and alter the redox pathways of sulfur cathodes. In the fourth part, organosulfur materials used in other metal batteries are introduced. Lastly, a summary and some perspectives are given. This review presents an overview of the recent advances of organosulfur materials in batteries and provides guidance for the future development of these materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Guo
- College of ChemistryZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhou450001P. R. China
| | - Dan‐Yang Wang
- College of ChemistryZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhou450001P. R. China
| | - Qiliang Chen
- College of ChemistryZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhou450001P. R. China
| | - Yongzhu Fu
- College of ChemistryZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhou450001P. R. China
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A Chemistry and Microstructure Perspective on Ion‐Conducting Membranes for Redox Flow Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202105619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Tang S, Chen Q, Si Y, Guo W, Mao B, Fu Y. Size Effect of Organosulfur and In Situ Formed Oligomers Enables High-Utilization Na-Organosulfur Batteries. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2100824. [PMID: 34247431 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202100824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Organosulfurs are promising cathode materials for rechargeable metal batteries due to their high capacities, diverse structures, and electrochemical properties. Herein, the electrochemical behavior of three organosulfur compounds, i.e., 4,4'-thiobisbenzenethiol (TBBT), 1,4-benzenedithiol (1,4-BDT), and diphenyl disulfide (DPDS), is revealed in room-temperature rechargeable sodium (Na) batteries, which show significantly improved performances when sodiated Nafion membranes are used. Large oligomers of organosulfur can be formed during charging, and they are readily blocked by the nanosized ion-conducting clusters in the Nafion membrane. In addition, large organosulfur monomers can also be blocked. Only 5.4% of TBBT diffuses through the Nafion membrane after 800 h. The Na|TBBT cell sustains 77% of the theoretical capacity after 300 cycles (2420 h). Moreover, the Na|TBBT redox flow cell shows promising rechargeability. Due to the medium molecular size, the organosulfur oligomers are expected to provide a new avenue to develop high-capacity chalcogen cathodes, besides inorganic S and S-containing polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Tang
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Qiliang Chen
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Yubing Si
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Wei Guo
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Bingwei Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces and Department of Chemistry, iChEM, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Yongzhu Fu
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
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Xiong P, Zhang L, Chen Y, Peng S, Yu G. A Chemistry and Microstructure Perspective on Ion-Conducting Membranes for Redox Flow Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:24770-24798. [PMID: 34165884 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202105619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are among the most promising grid-scale energy storage technologies. However, the development of RFBs with high round-trip efficiency, high rate capability, and long cycle life for practical applications is highly restricted by the lack of appropriate ion-conducting membranes. Promising RFB membranes should separate positive and negative species completely and conduct balancing ions smoothly. Specific systems must meet additional requirements, such as high chemical stability in corrosive electrolytes, good resistance to organic solvents in nonaqueous systems, and excellent mechanical strength and flexibility. These rigorous requirements put high demands on the membrane design, essentially the chemistry and microstructure associated with ion transport channels. In this Review, we summarize the design rationale of recently reported RFB membranes at the molecular level, with an emphasis on new chemistry, novel microstructures, and innovative fabrication strategies. Future challenges and potential research opportunities within this field are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Advanced Catalytic Engineer Research Center of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Leyuan Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Yuyue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Advanced Catalytic Engineer Research Center of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Sangshan Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Advanced Catalytic Engineer Research Center of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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Zhang L, Yu G. Hybrid Electrolyte Engineering Enables Safe and Wide‐Temperature Redox Flow Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:15028-15035. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202102516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leyuan Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin TX 78712 USA
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin TX 78712 USA
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11
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Zhang L, Yu G. Hybrid Electrolyte Engineering Enables Safe and Wide‐Temperature Redox Flow Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202102516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Leyuan Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin TX 78712 USA
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin TX 78712 USA
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