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Zahirović A, Fočak M, Fetahović S, Tüzün B, Višnjevac A, Muzika V, Brulić MM, Žero S, Čustović S, Crans DC, Roca S. Hydrazone-flavonol based oxidovanadium(V) complexes: Synthesis, characterization and antihyperglycemic activity of chloro derivative in vivo. J Inorg Biochem 2024; 258:112637. [PMID: 38876026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2024.112637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Wet synthesis approach afforded four new heteroleptic mononuclear neutral diamagnetic oxidovanadium(V) complexes, comprising salicylaldehyde-based 2-furoic acid hydrazones and a flavonol coligand of the general composition [VO(fla)(L-ONO)]. The complexes were comprehensively characterized, including chemical analysis, conductometry, infrared, electronic, and mass spectroscopy, as well as 1D 1H and proton-decoupled 13C(1H) NMR spectroscopy, alongside extensive 2D 1H1H COSY, 1H13C HMQC, and 1H13C HMBC NMR analyses. Additionally, the quantum chemical properties of the complexes were studied using Gaussian at the B3LYP, HF, and M062X levels on the 6-31++g(d,p) basis sets. The interaction of these hydrolytically inert vanadium complexes and the BSA was investigated through spectrofluorimetric titration, synchronous fluorimetry, and FRET analysis in a temperature-dependent manner, providing valuable thermodynamic insights into van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding. Molecular docking was conducted to gain further understanding of the specific binding sites of the complexes to BSA. Complex 2, featuring a 5-chloro-substituted salicylaldehyde component of the hydrazone, was extensively examined for its biological activity in vivo. The effects of complex administration on biochemical and hematological parameters were evaluated in both healthy and diabetic Wistar rats, revealing antihyperglycemic activity at millimolar concentration. Furthermore, histopathological analysis and bioaccumulation studies of the complex in the brain, kidneys, and livers of healthy and diabetic rats revealed the potential for further development of vanadium(V) hydrazone complexes as antidiabetic and insulin-mimetic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adnan Zahirović
- Laboratory for Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
| | - Muhamed Fočak
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Selma Fetahović
- Laboratory for Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Burak Tüzün
- Plant and Animal Production Department, Technical Sciences Vocational School of Sivas, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
| | - Aleksandar Višnjevac
- Laboratory for Chemical and Biological Crystallography, Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Višnja Muzika
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Maja Mitrašinović Brulić
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Sabina Žero
- Laboratory for Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Samra Čustović
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Debbie C Crans
- Cell & Molecular Biology Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Sunčica Roca
- NMR Centre, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Silva TUD, Silva ETD, Lima CHDS, Machado SDP. Molecular modeling of [VO(L 1-4)(R)] complexes (R = bipyridine, phenanthroline): DFT study of antioxidant activity, DNA binding and evaluation of electron-donating and -withdrawing substituent groups. J Mol Graph Model 2023; 124:108577. [PMID: 37536232 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2023.108577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
A DFT (density functional theory) study was conducted with eight oxovanadium complexes (C1 - C8) of general formula [VO(L1-4)(R)] (R = bipyridine, phenanthroline; L1-4 = group of ligands derived from dithiocarbamate). The obtained geometries showed a good correlation with the experimental structures. Molecular orbital analysis revealed that the contribution of the L-ligand in the SOMO (single-occupied molecular orbital) of the complexes correlated with the experimental antioxidant activity (IC50), while the contribution of the R-ligand to the LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) of the complexes correlated with the experimental complex-DNA interaction (Kb). It has been identified that the presence of an electron-donating substituent group (such as -NH2) in the C5 - C6 structures should enhance these complexes' antioxidant and DNA interaction activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talis Uelisson da Silva
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Rural Do Rio de Janeiro, 23890-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21945-970, Brazil.
| | | | | | - Sérgio de Paula Machado
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21945-970, Brazil
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Aureliano M, De Sousa-Coelho AL, Dolan CC, Roess DA, Crans DC. Biological Consequences of Vanadium Effects on Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Lipid Peroxidation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065382. [PMID: 36982458 PMCID: PMC10049017 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation (LPO), a process that affects human health, can be induced by exposure to vanadium salts and compounds. LPO is often exacerbated by oxidation stress, with some forms of vanadium providing protective effects. The LPO reaction involves the oxidation of the alkene bonds, primarily in polyunsaturated fatty acids, in a chain reaction to form radical and reactive oxygen species (ROS). LPO reactions typically affect cellular membranes through direct effects on membrane structure and function as well as impacting other cellular functions due to increases in ROS. Although LPO effects on mitochondrial function have been studied in detail, other cellular components and organelles are affected. Because vanadium salts and complexes can induce ROS formation both directly and indirectly, the study of LPO arising from increased ROS should include investigations of both processes. This is made more challenging by the range of vanadium species that exist under physiological conditions and the diverse effects of these species. Thus, complex vanadium chemistry requires speciation studies of vanadium to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of the various species that are present during vanadium exposure. Undoubtedly, speciation is important in assessing how vanadium exerts effects in biological systems and is likely the underlying cause for some of the beneficial effects reported in cancerous, diabetic, neurodegenerative conditions and other diseased tissues impacted by LPO processes. Speciation of vanadium, together with investigations of ROS and LPO, should be considered in future biological studies evaluating vanadium effects on the formation of ROS and on LPO in cells, tissues, and organisms as discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Aureliano
- Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia (FCT), Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- CCMar, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Correspondence: (M.A.); (D.C.C.); Tel.: +351-289-900-805 (M.A.)
| | - Ana Luísa De Sousa-Coelho
- Escola Superior de Saúde, Universidade do Algarve (ESSUAlg), 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Algarve Biomedical Center Research Institute (ABC-RI), 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Algarve Biomedical Center (ABC), 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Connor C. Dolan
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Deborah A. Roess
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Debbie C. Crans
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
- Correspondence: (M.A.); (D.C.C.); Tel.: +351-289-900-805 (M.A.)
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Fioravanço LP, Pôrto JB, Martins FM, Siqueira JD, Iglesias BA, Rodrigues BM, Chaves OA, Back DF. A Vanadium(V) complexes derived from pyridoxal/salicylaldehyde. Interaction with CT-DNA/HSA, and molecular docking assessments. J Inorg Biochem 2023; 239:112070. [PMID: 36450221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2022.112070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
With the increasing development of metallopharmaceuticals, coordination compounds become viable alternatives for therapeutic uses. Despite the importance of platinum derivatives in this area, first-row transition metals complexes are welcome due to their characteristics. Vanadium is a promising metal in this context, as it has a range of compounds with different biological applications, including anticancer therapeutic effects. In this effort, the study of interactions between coordination compounds with deoxyribonucleic acid and with human serum albumin is fundamental. In this way, ten iminic ligands were synthesized by condensing p-substituted aromatic benzohydrazides (OH, CH3, H, NO2, and NH2) with salicylaldehyde (L1As-L5As) or pyridoxal hydrochloride (L1P-L5P). These ligands have characteristics that allow the tridentate coordination of vanadium cations, leading to the formation of ten vanadium(V) complexes (C1As-C5As and C1P-C5P) with different structural features, all characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, UV-Vis and infrared spectroscopies, and cyclic voltammetry. In addition, the complexes were tested for their interactions with calf thymus deoxyribonucleic acid and human serum albumin by spectroscopic assays and molecular docking calculations. These new results can contribute to further research and provide different ways to design new vanadium complexes with biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Paiva Fioravanço
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Bortoluzzi Pôrto
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Francisco Mainardi Martins
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Josiéli Demetrio Siqueira
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Bernardo Almeida Iglesias
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Porphyrin Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Bruna Matiuzzi Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Porphyrin Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Otávio Augusto Chaves
- Coimbra Chemistry Center, Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga N°2, 3004-535, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Davi Fernando Back
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials, Department of Chemistry, CCNE, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.
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Oxoperoxovanadium Complexes of Hetero Ligands: X-Ray Crystal Structure, Density Functional Theory, and Investigations on DNA/BSA Interactions, Cytotoxic, and Molecular Docking Studies. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2022; 2022:8696420. [PMID: 36034769 PMCID: PMC9402336 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8696420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxoperoxovanadium (V) complexes [VO (O)2 (nf) (bp)] (1) and [VO (O)2 (ox) (bp)] (2) based on 5-nitro-2-furoic acid (nf), oxine (ox) and 2, 2′ bipyridine (bp) bidentate ligands have been synthesized and characterized by FT-IR, UV-visible, mass, and NMR spectroscopic techniques. The structure of complex 2 shows distorted pentagonal-bipyramidal geometry, as confirmed by a single-crystal XRD diffraction study. The interactions of complexes with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA) are investigated using UV-visible and fluorescence spectroscopic techniques. It has been observed that CT-DNA interacts with complexes through groove binding mode and the binding constants for complexes 1 and 2 are 8.7 × 103 M−1 and 8.6 × 103 M−1, respectively, and BSA quenching constants for complexes 1 and 2 are 0.0628 × 106 M−1 and 0.0163 × 106 M−1, respectively. The ability of complexes to cleave DNA is investigated using the gel electrophoresis method with pBR322 plasmid DNA. Furthermore, the cytotoxic effect of the complexes is evaluated against the HeLa cell line using an MTT assay. The complexes are subjected to density functional theory calculations to gain insight into their molecular geometries and are in accordance with the results of docking studies. Furthermore, based on molecular docking studies, the intermolecular interactions responsible for the stronger binding affinities between metal complexes and DNA are discussed.
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Bennie RB, Livingston DJ, Joel C, Jeyanthi D, Solomon RV. Crystal structure, chemical nuclease activity, and VHPO mimicking potential of oxovanadium(IV) complexes—A combined experimental and computational study. Appl Organomet Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.6106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. Biju Bennie
- Research Department of Chemistry St. John's College Tirunelveli 627 002 India
| | - D. Jim Livingston
- Research Department of Chemistry St. John's College Tirunelveli 627 002 India
| | - C. Joel
- Research Department of Chemistry St. John's College Tirunelveli 627 002 India
| | - D. Jeyanthi
- Department of Chemistry Nazareth Margoschis College at Pillaiyanmanai Tuticorin 628 617 India
| | - Rajadurai Vijay Solomon
- Department of Chemistry Madras Christian College (Autonomous) (affiliated to University of Madras) Chennai 600 059 India
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7
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DNA/BSA binding of a new oxovanadium (IV) complex of glycylglycine derivative Schiff base ligand. J Mol Struct 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Banerjee A, Mohanty M, Lima S, Samanta R, Garribba E, Sasamori T, Dinda R. Synthesis, structure and characterization of new dithiocarbazate-based mixed ligand oxidovanadium(iv) complexes: DNA/HSA interaction, cytotoxic activity and DFT studies. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj01246g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis, structure and characterization of mixed ligand oxidovanadium(iv) complexes [VIVOL1–2(LN–N)] (1–3) are reported. With a view to evaluating their biological activity, their DNA/HSA interaction and cytotoxicity activity have been explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atanu Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Monalisa Mohanty
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Sudhir Lima
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Rajib Samanta
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Eugenio Garribba
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Farmacia
- Università di Sassari
- I-07100 Sassari
- Italy
| | - Takahiro Sasamori
- Graduate School of Natural Sciences
- Nagoya City University Yamanohata 1
- Nagoya
- Japan
| | - Rupam Dinda
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
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9
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Exploring the DNA binding efficacy of Cobalt(II) and Copper(II) complexes of hydroxamic acids and explicating their anti-cancer propensity. J Mol Struct 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2019.07.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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10
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Lima S, Banerjee A, Mohanty M, Sahu G, Kausar C, Patra SK, Garribba E, Kaminsky W, Dinda R. Synthesis, structure and biological evaluation of mixed ligand oxidovanadium(iv) complexes incorporating 2-(arylazo)phenolates. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj01910c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Synthesis and characterization of mixed ligand oxidovanadium(iv) complexes [VIVO(L1–4)(LNN)] incorporating arylazo ligands: evaluation of DNA/BSA interaction and cytotoxicity activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhir Lima
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Atanu Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Monalisa Mohanty
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Gurunath Sahu
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Chahat Kausar
- Department of Life Science
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Samir Kumar Patra
- Department of Life Science
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
| | - Eugenio Garribba
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Farmacia
- Università di Sassari
- I-07100 Sassari
- Italy
| | | | - Rupam Dinda
- Department of Chemistry
- National Institute of Technology
- Rourkela
- India
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Zhu MC, Wang N, Meng B, Su JQ, Peng TT, Qi ZZ, Jia B, Feng YH, Gao EJ. Two Ho(III) and Co(II) complexes constructed from bis(triazol-1-yl)benzoic acid with structurally similar carboxyl ligands: Syntheses, structures and biological activities. Appl Organomet Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.4571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Ning Wang
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Bo Meng
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Jun-qi Su
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Ting-ting Peng
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Zhen-zhen Qi
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Bing Jia
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - Yun-hui Feng
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
| | - En-Jun Gao
- Key Laboratory of Inorganic Molecule-Based Chemistry of Liaoning Province and Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry; Shenyang University of Chemical Technology; Shenyang 110142 China
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Synthesis, Structure, DNA Interaction, and SOD Activity of Three Nickel(II) Complexes Containing L-Phenylalanine Schiff Base and 1,10-Phenanthroline. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2018; 2018:8478152. [PMID: 30073020 PMCID: PMC6057355 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8478152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Three hexacoordinated octahedral nickel(II) complexes, [Ni(sal-L-phe)(phen)(CH3OH)]·CH3OH (1), [Ni(naph-L-phe)(phen)(CH3OH)] (2), and [Ni(o-van-L-phe)(phen)(CH3OH)]·5CH3OH (3) (sal-L-phe = a Schiff base derived from salicylaldehyde and L-phenylalanine, naph-L-phe = a Schiff base derived from 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde and L-phenylalanine, o-van-L-phe = a Schiff base derived from o-vanillin and L-phenylalanine, and phen = 1,10-phenanthroline), have been synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, IR spectra, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The interactions of these complexes with CT-DNA were studied by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and viscosity measurements. The binding constant (Kb) values of 1.82 × 104 M−1 for 1, 1.96 × 104 M−1 for 2, and 2.02 × 104 M−1 for 3 suggest that each of these complexes could bind with DNA in a moderate intercalative mode. Complex 3 exhibited a stronger interaction with CT-DNA than complexes 1 and 2. In addition, the superoxide scavenging activity of these complexes was investigated by the nitrotetrazolium blue chloride (NBT) light reduction method, and the results showed that they exhibited a significant superoxide scavenging activity with the IC50 values of 4.4 × 10−5 M for complex 1, 5.6 × 10−5 M for complex 2, and 3.1 × 10−5 M for complex 3, respectively.
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