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Ahmadi M, Ehrmann K, Koch T, Liska R, Stampfl J. From Unregulated Networks to Designed Microstructures: Introducing Heterogeneity at Different Length Scales in Photopolymers for Additive Manufacturing. Chem Rev 2024; 124:3978-4020. [PMID: 38546847 PMCID: PMC11009961 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Photopolymers have been optimized as protective and decorative coating materials for decades. However, with the rise of additive manufacturing technologies, vat photopolymerization has unlocked the use of photopolymers for three-dimensional objects with new material requirements. Thus, the originally highly cross-linked, amorphous architecture of photopolymers cannot match the expectations for modern materials anymore, revealing the largely unanswered question of how diverse properties can be achieved in photopolymers. Herein, we review how microstructural features in soft matter materials should be designed and implemented to obtain high performance materials. We then translate these findings into chemical design suggestions for enhanced printable photopolymers. Based on this analysis, we have found microstructural heterogenization to be the most powerful tool to tune photopolymer performance. By combining the chemical toolbox for photopolymerization and the analytical toolbox for microstructural characterization, we examine current strategies for physical heterogenization (fillers, inkjet printing) and chemical heterogenization (semicrystalline polymers, block copolymers, interpenetrating networks, photopolymerization induced phase separation) of photopolymers and put them into a material scientific context to develop a roadmap for improving and diversifying photopolymers' performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Ahmadi
- Institute
of Materials Science and Technology, Technische
Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9BE, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Ehrmann
- Institute
of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technische
Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Koch
- Institute
of Materials Science and Technology, Technische
Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9BE, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute
of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technische
Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jürgen Stampfl
- Institute
of Materials Science and Technology, Technische
Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9BE, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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Hasa E, Stansbury JW, Guymon CA. Manipulation of crosslinking in photo-induced phase separated polymers to control morphology and thermo-mechanical properties. POLYMER 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Tran-Cong-Miyata Q, Nakanishi H. Phase separation of polymer mixtures driven by photochemical reactions: current status and perspectives. POLYM INT 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.5243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Qui Tran-Cong-Miyata
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Kyoto Institute of Technology; Matsugasaki Sakyo-ku 606-8585 Japan
| | - Hideyuki Nakanishi
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Kyoto Institute of Technology; Matsugasaki Sakyo-ku 606-8585 Japan
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Song HB, Sowan N, Shah PK, Baranek A, Flores A, Stansbury JW, Bowman CN. Reduced shrinkage stress via photo-initiated copper(I)-catalyzed cycloaddition polymerizations of azide-alkyne resins. Dent Mater 2016; 32:1332-1342. [PMID: 27524230 DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2016.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Polymerization shrinkage stress and factors involved in the stress development such as volumetric shrinkage and modulus were investigated in photo-CuAAC (photo-initiated copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition) polymerization and compared with conventional BisGMA-based methacrylate polymerization for their use as alternative dental resins. METHODS Tri-functional alkyne and di-functional azide monomers were synthesized for photo-CuAAC polymerization. Conversion kinetics, stress development and polymerization shrinkage were determined with FTIR spectroscopy, tensometery, and with a linometer, respectively, for CuAAC and BisGMA-based monomer mixtures using a camphorquinone/amine visible light photoinitiator system. Thermo-mechanical properties for the cured polymer matrices were characterized by dynamic mechanical analysis and in three-point bending on a universal testing machine. Polymerization kinetics, polymerization shrinkage stress, dynamic volumetric shrinkage, glass transition temperature (Tg), flexural modulus, flexural strength, and flexural toughness were compared between the two different resin systems. RESULTS A glassy CuAAC polymer (Tg=62°C) exhibited 15-25% lower flexural modulus of 2.5±0.2GPa and flexural strength of 117±8MPa compared to BisGMA-based polymer (Tg=160°C) but showed considerably higher energy absorption around 7.1MJ×m-3 without fracture when strained to 11% via three-point bend compared to the flexural toughness of 2.7MJ×m-3 obtained from BisGMA-based polymer. In contrast to BisGMA-based polymers at 75% functional group conversion, the CuAAC polymerization developed approximately three times lower shrinkage stress with the potential to achieve quantitative conversion under ambient temperature photocuring conditions. Moreover, relatively equivalent dynamic volumetric shrinkage of around 6-7% was observed via both CuAAC and dimethacrylate polymerization, suggesting that the low shrinkage stress of CuAAC polymerization was due to delayed gelation along with slower rate of polymerization and the formation of a more compliant network structure. SIGNIFICANCE CuAAC crosslinked networks possessed high toughness and low polymerization shrinkage stress with quantitative conversion, which eliminated obstacles associated with BisGMA-based dental resins including limited conversion, unreacted extractable moieties, brittle failure, and high shrinkage stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Byul Song
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Nancy Sowan
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Parag K Shah
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Austin Baranek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Alexander Flores
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Jeffrey W Stansbury
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States; Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Christopher N Bowman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States; Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, 596 UCB, Boulder, CO, United States.
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Szczepanski CR, Darmanin T, Guittard F. Spontaneous, Phase-Separation Induced Surface Roughness: A New Method to Design Parahydrophobic Polymer Coatings with Rose Petal-like Morphology. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:3063-3071. [PMID: 26794637 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b10222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
While the development of polymer coatings with controlled surface topography is a growing research topic, a fabrication method that does not rely on lengthy processing times, bulk solvent solution, or secondary functionalization has yet to be identified. This study presents a facile, rapid, in situ method to develop parahydrophobic coatings based on phase separation during photopolymerization. A comonomer resin of ethylene glycol diacrylate (EGDA) and 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyl acrylate (PFDA) is modified with a thermoplastic additive (PVDF) to induce phase separation during polymerization. If applied to a glass substrate and photopolymerized, the EGDA/PFDA copolymer forms a homogeneous network with a single glass transition temperature (T(g)) and slight hydrophobicity (θ(w) ∼ 114°). When the resin is modified with PVDF, phase separation occurs during photopolymerization producing a heterogeneous network with two T(g) values. The phase separation causes differences in composition and cross-link density within the network, which leads to local variations in polymerization shrinkage across the nonconstrained material interface. Domains with higher cross-link densities shrink and contract toward the bulk material more dramatically, permitting the formation of rough surfaces with submicron sized spheres enriched in PVDF dispersed in a continuous matrix of EGDA/PFDA copolymer. Both the surface roughness and hydrophobic components in the resin render these surfaces parahydrophobic with θ(w) ∼ 150°, high water adhesion, and a similar morphology to rose petals observed in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thierry Darmanin
- University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, CNRS, LPMC, UMR 7336 , 06100 Nice, France
| | - Frédéric Guittard
- University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, CNRS, LPMC, UMR 7336 , 06100 Nice, France
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Szczepanski CR, Stansbury JW. Modification of linear prepolymers to tailor heterogeneous network formation through photo-initiated Polymerization-Induced Phase Separation. POLYMER 2015; 70:8-18. [PMID: 26190865 PMCID: PMC4503221 DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Polymerization-induced phase separation (PIPS) was studied in ambient photopolymerizations of triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) modified by poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). The molecular weight of PMMA and the rate of network formation (through incident UV-irradiation) were varied to influence both the promotion of phase separation through increases in overall free energy, as well as the extent to which phase development occurs during polymerization through diffusion prior to network gelation. The overall free energy of the polymerizing system increases with PMMA molecular weight, such that PIPS is promoted thermodynamically at low loading levels (5 wt%) of a higher molecular weight PMMA (120 kDa), while a higher loading level (20 wt%) is needed to induce PIPS with lower PMMA molecular weight (11 kDa), and phase separation was not promoted at any loading level tested of the lowest molecular weight PMMA (1 kDa). Due to these differences in overall free energy, systems modified by PMMA (11 kDa) underwent phase separation via Nucleation and Growth, and systems modified by PMMA (120 kDa), followed the Spinodal Decomposition mechanism. Despite differences in phase structure, all materials form a continuous phase rich in TEGDMA homopolymer. At high irradiation intensity (Io=20mW/cm2), the rate of network formation prohibited significant phase separation, even when thermodynamically preferred. A staged curing approach, which utilizes low intensity irradiation (Io=300µW/cm2) for the first ~50% of reaction to allow phase separation via diffusion, followed by a high intensity flood-cure to achieve a high degree of conversion, was employed to form phase-separated networks with reduced polymerization stress yet equivalent final conversion and modulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline R. Szczepanski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Jeffrey W. Stansbury
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Szczepanski CR, Stansbury JW. Accessing photo-based morphological control in phase-separated, cross-linked networks through delayed gelation. Eur Polym J 2015; 67:314-325. [PMID: 25954051 DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2015.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This work presents an approach to extend the period for phase separation, independent of temperature, in ambient phase-separating photopolymerizations based on the copolymerization of structurally similar mono- and di-vinyl monomers. Copolymer resins composed of triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) and ethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate (EGMEMA) were modified with a thermoplastic prepolymer, poly(butyl methacrylate). With increasing EGMEMA modification into the bulk TEGDMA resin, there is a decrease in the initial reaction rate, which increases the time for development of compositionally different phases prior to network gelation. The period between phase separation and gelation was probed through optical and rheological measurements, and it was extended from 22 s in a TEGDMA resin to 69 s in a TEGDMA:EGMEMA copolymer, allowing these materials to be processed under a wide range of UV-irradiation intensities (300 µW cm-2 - 100 mW cm-2), which provided an additional degree of control over the resulting phase separated domain size and morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline R Szczepanski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Jeffrey W Stansbury
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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KAWAKUBO R, NAKANISHI H, NORISUYE T, TRAN-CONG-MIYATA Q. Influence of Alkyl Chain Length in Methacrylate Monomers on the Phase Separation Induced by Photo-Polymerization. KOBUNSHI RONBUNSHU 2015. [DOI: 10.1295/koron.2015-0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rie KAWAKUBO
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Technology
- Toyo Tire & Rubber Co., Ltd
| | - Hideyuki NAKANISHI
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Technology
| | - Tomohisa NORISUYE
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Technology
| | - Qui TRAN-CONG-MIYATA
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Technology
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