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Whba R, Su'ait MS, Whba F, Sahinbay S, Altin S, Ahmad A. Intrinsic challenges and strategic approaches for enhancing the potential of natural rubber and its derivatives: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024:133796. [PMID: 39004255 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.133796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Natural rubber (NR) and its derivatives play indispensable roles in various industries due to their unique properties and versatile applications. However, the widespread utilization of NR faces intrinsic challenges such as limited mechanical strength, poor resistance to heat and organic solvent, poor electrical conductivity, and low compatibility with other materials, prompting researchers to explore enhancing its performance. Modified NRs (MNRs) like cyclization, deproteinization, chlorination, epoxidation, or grafting NR demonstrated a few enhanced merits compared to NR. However, various strategies, such as blending, vulcanization, crosslinking, grafting, plasticization, reinforcement, and nanostructuring, overcame most drawbacks. This review comprehensively examines these challenges and delves into the modification strategies employed to enhance the properties and expand the applications of NR and its derivatives. Furthermore, the review explores future visions for the NR industry, emphasizing integrating advanced modification techniques, adopting sustainable practices, and promoting circular economy principles. By elucidating the inherent challenges, outlining effective modification strategies, and envisioning future trajectories, this review provides valuable insights for stakeholders seeking to navigate and contribute to the sustainable development of the NR sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rawdah Whba
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Taiz University, 6803 Taiz, Yemen; Department of Engineering Physics, Istanbul Medeniyet University, 34700 Istanbul, Turkiye.
| | - Mohd Sukor Su'ait
- Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Fathyah Whba
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Taiz University, 6803 Taiz, Yemen
| | - Sevda Sahinbay
- Istanbul Technical University, Physics Department, Bebek, Istanbul, Turkiye
| | - Serdar Altin
- Physics Department, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkiye
| | - Azizan Ahmad
- Department of Chemical Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia; Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Airlangga University (Campus C), Mulyorejo Road, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia.
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Monti M, Giannini L, Tadiello L, Guerra S, Papagni A, Vaghi L. Thermally Activable Bistetrazoles for Elastomers Crosslinking. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14142919. [PMID: 35890695 PMCID: PMC9323196 DOI: 10.3390/polym14142919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur vulcanization is the most used method for curing of natural and synthetic rubbers. The crosslinking degree achieved is usually controlled by adding proper quantities of accelerants, activators, co-activators, retardants, and inhibitors, and influences the hardness, elasticity, hysteresis of elastomers and, consequently, the properties and behavior of the materials that incorporate them. Despite the fine tuning pursued over the years, sulfur crosslinking is still difficult to control both in terms of degree and homogeneity of cross-link. Addition of thermally activable bifunctional reagents able to crosslink the polymer matrix through covalent bonds could be a strategy to modulate and control finely the reticulation grade of elastomers. Tetrazoles can form highly reactive nitrilimines by thermal treatment at appropriate temperature, which can react with the vinyl double bonds present in the rubber. In this work a set of bis-tetrazoles were synthesized and those with the right activation temperatures were used for the curing of styrene-butadiene rubber, acting both as single crosslinkers and together with classic sulfur-based ones. The addition of bistetrazoles simplified and made more efficient the compounding process, allowing to prolong the mixing until optimum dispersion and homogeneity were obtained. Moreover, they led to an improvement in the hysteretic properties of the compound and to the reduction of the non-linearity of the dynamic behavior (Payne effect).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Monti
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Luca Giannini
- Pirelli Tyre S.p.A., Viale Sarca 222, 20126 Milano, Italy; (L.G.); (L.T.); (S.G.)
| | - Luciano Tadiello
- Pirelli Tyre S.p.A., Viale Sarca 222, 20126 Milano, Italy; (L.G.); (L.T.); (S.G.)
| | - Silvia Guerra
- Pirelli Tyre S.p.A., Viale Sarca 222, 20126 Milano, Italy; (L.G.); (L.T.); (S.G.)
| | - Antonio Papagni
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Luca Vaghi
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Arrigo R, Mascia L, Clarke J, Malucelli G. Effect of SiO 2 Particles on the Relaxation Dynamics of Epoxidized Natural Rubber (ENR) in the Melt State by Time-Resolved Mechanical Spectroscopy. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13020276. [PMID: 33467704 PMCID: PMC7830418 DOI: 10.3390/polym13020276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The rheological behavior of an epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) nanocomposite containing 10 wt.% of silica particles was examined by time-resolved mechanical spectroscopy (TRMS), exploiting the unique capability of this technique for monitoring the time-dependent characteristics of unstable polymer melts. The resulting storage modulus curve has revealed a progressive evolution of the elastic component of the composite, associated with slower relaxations of the ENR macromolecular chains. Two major events were identified and quantified: one is associated with the absorption of the epoxidized rubber macromolecules onto the silica surface, which imposes further restrictions on the motions of the chains within the polymer phase; the second is related to gelation and the subsequent changes in rheological behavior resulting from the simultaneous occurrence cross-linking and chain scission reactions within the ENR matrix. These were quantified using two parameters related to changes in the storage and loss modulus components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Arrigo
- Department of Applied Science and Technology and local INSTM Unit, Politecnico di Torino, Viale Teresa Michel 5, 15121 Alessandria, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0131-229323
| | - Leno Mascia
- Department of Materials, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (L.M.); (J.C.)
| | - Jane Clarke
- Department of Materials, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (L.M.); (J.C.)
| | - Giulio Malucelli
- Department of Applied Science and Technology and local INSTM Unit, Politecnico di Torino, Viale Teresa Michel 5, 15121 Alessandria, Italy;
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Öter M, Karaağaç B. Epoxidised natural rubber as adhesion promoter in natural rubber based compounds. J RUBBER RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42464-020-00061-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Structure Evolution of Epoxidized Natural Rubber (ENR) in the Melt State by Time-Resolved Mechanical Spectroscopy. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13040946. [PMID: 32093236 PMCID: PMC7079657 DOI: 10.3390/ma13040946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this work, time-resolved mechanical spectroscopy (TRMS) was used to accurately characterize the rheological behavior of an epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) containing 25 mol% of epoxy groups. Conventional rheological tests are not suitable to characterize with accuracy the frequency-dependent linear viscoelastic behavior of materials, such as ENR, in a transient configurational state. For this reason, TRMS was used to determine the true rheological behavior of ENR, as well as to gain some insights into the changes of its macromolecular architecture under the dynamic conditions experienced during the measurements. The constructed master curves for the moduli revealed a gradual transition of the ENR rheological state from liquid-like to solid-like through the formation of an “elastic gel” throughout the bulk of the polymer. Furthermore, the evolution of the stress relaxation modulus revealed a slow relaxation mechanism, resulting from thermally activated reactions in the molten state attributed to the formation of crosslinks. Finally, the crosslink density evolution was estimated from the TRMS data and compared with results derived from equilibrium solvent-swelling measurements. These demonstrated the accuracy of the TRMS data in the prediction of the structural changes that can take place in polymers during processing.
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Liang L, Dong J, Yue D. Branched EHNBR and its properties with enhanced low-temperature performance and oil resistance. RSC Adv 2019; 9:32130-32136. [PMID: 35530803 PMCID: PMC9072987 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra03656c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Epoxide nitrile butadiene rubber (ENBR) was prepared via in situ epoxidation from nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) with acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. ENBR had been selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a homogeneous Wilkinson catalyst. The hydrogenated epoxide nitrile butadiene rubber (EHNBR) and ENBR were characterized by infra-red and proton nuclear magnetic resonance. No change was noted in the epoxy content of the polymer after the reaction. The catalyst is highly selective in reducing carbon–carbon double bonds in the presence of epoxy groups. DSC analysis reveals the Tg of ENBR varied linearly with molar epoxide content and the Tg value increased by 0.82 °C per mol%. It also found that the introduction of epoxy groups can effectively reduce the extent of crystallization by impairing the regularity of the molecular chain, but crystalline structure was difficult to completely eliminate. Therefore, anhydrides were selected as ring-opening reagents to react with epoxy groups in EHNBR. The products, branched EHNBR, were characterized by infra-red and proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The conversion rate of the epoxide group was calculated by 1H NMR. The glass transition temperature of EHNBR-g-heptyl group was −34.1 °C, and its DSC curve demonstrated no crystal structure. The coefficient of cold resistance under compression of EHNBR grafted propyl ester was 0.36, which represented a superior low-temperature performance. Furthermore, residual epoxy groups and ester groups extremely enhanced the oil resistance of HNBR. Epoxide nitrile butadiene rubber (ENBR) was prepared via in situ epoxidation from nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) with acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liang
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Material
- Beijing
- China
| | - Jianjun Dong
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Material
- Beijing
- China
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing
| | - Dongmei Yue
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing
- China
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Modification of proteins and polysaccharides using dodecenyl succinic anhydride: Synthesis, properties and applications-A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 107:2224-2233. [PMID: 29051094 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.10.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Proteins and polysaccharides are among the biopolymers produced by living organisms for their structural integrity, protection, physiological functions, or as reserve energy. These biopolymers are extracted from their natural matrices by humans to fulfil basic as well as convenience needs. The inquisitive human nature, ever-growing demands and resources at disposal have led to copious research in the field of biopolymer modifications. The availability of reactive sites on these biopolymers make them suitable substrates for esterification, etherification, oxidation, epoxidation, N-acylation, alkylation, etc. Dodecenyl succinic anhydride (DDSA) is an esterifying agent that introduces a 12-carbon hydrophobic chain in the structure of the substrate containing suitable reactive sites. The use of DDSA as a modifying agent for biopolymers dates back to the mid-twentieth century. Even today, many biopolymers are explored for modification with DDSA for improved functionality. These modifications are aimed at catering the needs of the paint, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food and textile industries. This review attempts to systematically compile reported research on the use of DDSA as a biopolymer modifying agent, the various reaction techniques, properties and applications thereof.
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Mascia L, Su R, Clarke J, Lou Y, Mele E. Fibres from blends of epoxidized natural rubber and polylactic acid by the electrospinning process: Compatibilization and surface texture. Eur Polym J 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2016.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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